Summa Theologica: Just the Qs and As

For those who don’t have the time to read all 3020 pages of the Summa Theologica (txt), below is a list of just the questions and the first lines of the answers.

TREATISE ON SACRED DOCTRINE

THE NATURE AND EXTENT OF SACRED DOCTRINE

Q1: Whether, besides philosophy, any further doctrine is required?

It was necessary for man's salvation that there should be a knowledge revealed by God besides philosophical science built up by human reason...

Q2: Whether sacred doctrine is a science?

Sacred doctrine is a science...

Q3: Whether sacred doctrine is one science?

Sacred doctrine is one science...

Q4: Whether sacred doctrine is a practical science?

Sacred doctrine, being one, extends to things which belong to different philosophical sciences because it considers in each the same formal aspect, namely, so far as they can be known through divine revelation...

Q5: Whether sacred doctrine is nobler than other sciences?

Since this science is partly speculative and partly practical, it transcends all others speculative and practical...

Q6: Whether this doctrine is the same as wisdom?

This doctrine is wisdom above all human wisdom; not merely in any one order, but absolutely...

Q7: Whether God is the object of this science?

God is the object of this science...

Q8: Whether sacred doctrine is a matter of argument?

As other sciences do not argue in proof of their principles, but argue from their principles to demonstrate other truths in these sciences: so this doctrine does not argue in proof of its principles, which are the articles of faith, but from them it goes on to prove something else; as the Apostle from the resurrection of Christ argues in proof of the general resurrection ...

Q9: Whether Holy Scripture should use metaphors?

It is befitting Holy Writ to put forward divine and spiritual truths by means of comparisons with material things...

Q10: Whether in Holy Scripture a word may have several senses?

The author of Holy Writ is God, in whose power it is to signify His meaning, not by words only, but also by things themselves...

TREATISE ON THE ONE GOD

THE EXISTENCE OF GOD

Q11: Whether the existence of God is self-evident?

A thing can be self-evident in either of two ways: on the one hand, self-evident in itself, though not to us; on the other, self-evident in itself, and to us...

Q12: Whether it can be demonstrated that God exists?

Demonstration can be made in two ways: One is through the cause, and is called "a priori," and this is to argue from what is prior absolutely...

Q13: Whether God exists?

The existence of God can be proved in five ways.

OF THE SIMPLICITY OF GOD

Q14: Whether God is a body?

It is absolutely true that God is not a body; and this can be shown in three ways...

Q15: Whether God is composed of matter and form?

It is impossible that matter should exist in God...

Q16: Whether God is the same as His essence or nature?

God is the same as His essence or nature...

Q17: Whether essence and existence are the same in God?

God is not only His own essence, as shown in the preceding article, but also His own existence...

Q18: Whether God is contained in a genus?

A thing can be in a genus in two ways; either absolutely and properly, as a species contained under a genus; or as being reducible to it, as principles and privations...

Q19: Whether in God there are any accidents?

From all we have said, it is clear there can be no accident in God...

Q20: Whether God is altogether simple?

The absolute simplicity of God may be shown in many ways...

Q21: Whether God enters into the composition of other things?

On this point there have been three errors...

THE PERFECTION OF GOD

Q22: Whether God is perfect?

As the Philosopher relates, some ancient philosophers, namely, the Pythagoreans and Leucippus, did not predicate "best" and "most perfect" of the first principle...

Q23: Whether the perfections of all things are in God?

All created perfections are in God...

Q24: Whether any creature can be like God?

Since likeness is based upon agreement or communication in form, it varies according to the many modes of communication in form...

OF GOODNESS IN GENERAL

Q25: Whether goodness differs really from being?

Goodness and being are really the same, and differ only in idea; which is clear from the following argument...

Q26: Whether goodness is prior in idea to being?

In idea being is prior to goodness...

Q27: Whether every being is good?

Every being, as being, is good...

Q28: Whether goodness has the aspect of a final cause?

Since goodness is that which all things desire, and since this has the aspect of an end, it is clear that goodness implies the aspect of an end...

Q29: Whether the essence of goodness consists in mode, species and order?

Everything is said to be good so far as it is perfect; for in that way only is it desirable ...

Q30: Whether goodness is rightly divided into the virtuous*, the useful and the pleasant?

This division properly concerns human goodness...

THE GOODNESS OF GOD

Q31: Whether God is good?

To be good belongs pre-eminently to God...

Q32: Whether God is the supreme good?

God is the supreme good simply, and not only as existing in any genus or order of things...

Q33: Whether to be essentially good belongs to God alone?

God alone is good essentially...

Q34: Whether all things are good by the divine goodness?

As regards relative things, we must admit extrinsic denomination; as, a thing is denominated "placed" from "place," and "measured" from "measure"...

THE INFINITY OF GOD

Q35: Whether God is infinite?

All the ancient philosophers attribute infinitude to the first principle, as is said, and with reason; for they considered that things flow forth infinitely from the first principle...

Q36: Whether anything but God can be essentially infinite?

Things other than God can be relatively infinite, but not absolutely infinite...

Q37: Whether an actually infinite magnitude can exist?

It is one thing to be infinite in essence, and another to be infinite in magnitude...

Q38: Whether an infinite multitude can exist?

A twofold opinion exists on this subject...

THE EXISTENCE OF GOD IN THINGS

Q39: Whether God is in all things?

God is in all things; not, indeed, as part of their essence, nor as an accident, but as an agent is present to that upon which it works...

Q40: Whether God is everywhere?

Since place is a thing, to be in place can be understood in a twofold sense; either by way of other things---i.e. as one thing is said to be in another no matter how; and thus the accidents of a place are in place; or by a way proper to place; and thus things placed are in a place...

Q41: Whether God is everywhere by essence, presence and power?

God is said to be in a thing in two ways; in one way after the manner of an efficient cause; and thus He is in all things created by Him; in another way he is in things as the object of operation is in the operator; and this is proper to the operations of the soul, according as the thing known is in the one who knows; and the thing desired in the one desiring...

Q42: Whether to be everywhere belongs to God alone?

To be everywhere primarily and absolutely, is proper to God...

THE IMMUTABILITY OF GOD

Q43: Whether God is altogether immutable?

From what precedes, it is shown that God is altogether immutable...

Q44: Whether to be immutable belongs to God alone?

God alone is altogether immutable; whereas every creature is in some way mutable...

THE ETERNITY OF GOD

Q45: Whether this is a good definition of eternity, "The simultaneously-whole and perfect possession of interminable life"?

As we attain to the knowledge of simple things by way of compound things, so must we reach to the knowledge of eternity by means of time, which is nothing but the numbering of movement by "before" and "after"...

Q46: Whether God is eternal?

The idea of eternity follows immutability, as the idea of time follows movement, as appears from the preceding article...

Q47: Whether to be eternal belongs to God alone?

Eternity truly and properly so called is in God alone, because eternity follows on immutability; as appears from the first article...

Q48: Whether eternity differs from time?

It is manifest that time and eternity are not the same...

Q49: The difference of aeviternity and time

Aeviternity differs from time, and from eternity, as the mean between them both...

Q50: Whether there is only one aeviternity?

A twofold opinion exists on this subject...

THE UNITY OF GOD

Q51: Whether "one" adds anything to "being"?

"One" does not add any reality to "being"; but is only a negation of division; for "one" means undivided "being"...

Q52: Whether "one" and "many" are opposed to each other?

"One" is opposed to "many," but in various ways...

Q53: Whether God is one?

It can be shown from these three sources that God is one...

Q54: Whether God is supremely one?

Since "one" is an undivided being, if anything is supremely "one" it must be supremely being, and supremely undivided...

HOW GOD IS KNOWN BY US

Q55: Whether any created intellect can see the essence of God?

Since everything is knowable according as it is actual, God, Who is pure act without any admixture of potentiality, is in Himself supremely knowable...

Q56: Whether the essence of God is seen by the created intellect through an image?

Two things are required both for sensible and for intellectual vision---viz. power of sight, and union of the thing seen with the sight...

Q57: Whether the essence of God can be seen with the bodily eye?

It is impossible for God to be seen by the sense of sight, or by any other sense, or faculty of the sensitive power...

Q58: Whether any created intellect by its natural powers can see the Divine essence?

It is impossible for any created intellect to see the essence of God by its own natural power...

Q59: Whether the created intellect needs any created light in order to see the essence of God?

Everything which is raised up to what exceeds its nature, must be prepared by some disposition above its nature; as, for example, if air is to receive the form of fire, it must be prepared by some disposition for such a form...

Q60: Whether of those who see the essence of God, one sees more perfectly than another?

Of those who see the essence of God, one sees Him more perfectly than another...

Q61: Whether those who see the essence of God comprehend Him?

It is impossible for any created intellect to comprehend God; yet "for the mind to attain to God in some degree is great beatitude," as Augustine says .

Q62: Whether those who see the essence of God see all in God?

The created intellect, in seeing the divine essence, does not see in it all that God does or can do...

Q63: Whether what is seen in God by those who see the Divine essence, is seen through any similitude?

Those who see the divine essence see what they see in God not by any likeness, but by the divine essence itself united to their intellect...

Q64: Whether those who see the essence of God see all they see in it at the same time?

What is seen in the Word is seen not successively, but at the same time...

Q65: Whether anyone in this life can see the essence of God?

God cannot be seen in His essence by a mere human being, except he be separated from this mortal life...

Q66: Whether God can be known in this life by natural reason?

Our natural knowledge begins from sense...

Q67: Whether by grace a higher knowledge of God can be obtained than by natural reason?

We have a more perfect knowledge of God by grace than by natural reason...

THE NAMES OF GOD

Q68: Whether a name can be given to God?

Since according to the Philosopher, words are signs of ideas, and ideas the similitude of things, it is evident that words relate to the meaning of things signified through the medium of the intellectual conception...

Q69: Whether any name can be applied to God substantially?

Negative names applied to God, or signifying His relation to creatures manifestly do not at all signify His substance, but rather express the distance of the creature from Him, or His relation to something else, or rather, the relation of creatures to Himself.

Q70: Whether any name can be applied to God in its literal sense?

According to the preceding article, our knowledge of God is derived from the perfections which flow from Him to creatures, which perfections are in God in a more eminent way than in creatures...

Q71: Whether names applied to God are synonymous?

These names spoken of God are not synonymous...

Q72: Whether what is said of God and of creatures is univocally predicated of them?

Univocal predication is impossible between God and creatures...

Q73: Whether names predicated of God are predicated primarily of creatures?

In names predicated of many in an analogical sense, all are predicated because they have reference to some one thing; and this one thing must be placed in the definition of them all...

Q74: Whether names which imply relation to creatures are predicated of God temporally?

The names which import relation to creatures are applied to God temporally, and not from eternity.

Q75: Whether this name "God" is a name of the nature?

Whence a name is imposed, and what the name signifies are not always the same thing...

Q76: Whether this name "God" is communicable?

A name is communicable in two ways: properly, and by similitude...

Q77: Whether this name "God" is applied to God univocally by nature, by participation, and according to opinion?

This name "God" in the three aforesaid significations is taken neither univocally nor equivocally, but analogically...

Q78: Whether this name, HE WHO IS, is the most proper name of God?

This name HE WHO IS is most properly applied to God, for three reasons:

Q79: Whether affirmative propositions can be formed about God?

True affirmative propositions can be formed about God...

OF GOD'S KNOWLEDGE

Q80: Whether there is knowledge ?

In God there exists the most perfect knowledge...

Q81: Whether God understands Himself?

God understands Himself through Himself...

Q82: Whether God comprehends Himself?

God perfectly comprehends Himself, as can be thus proved...

Q83: Whether the act of God's intellect is His substance?

It must be said that the act of God's intellect is His substance...

Q84: Whether God knows things other than Himself?

God necessarily knows things other than Himself...

Q85: Whether God knows things other than Himself by proper knowledge?

Some have erred on this point, saying that God knows things other than Himself only in general, that is, only as beings...

Q86: Whether the knowledge of God is discursive?

In the divine knowledge there is no discursion; the proof of which is as follows...

Q87: Whether the knowledge of God is the cause of things?

The knowledge of God is the cause of things...

Q88: Whether God has knowledge of things that are not?

God knows all things whatsoever that in any way are...

Q89: Whether God knows evil things?

Whoever knows a thing perfectly, must know all that can be accidental to it...

Q90: Whether God knows singular things?

God knows singular things...

Q91: Whether God can know infinite things?

Since God knows not only things actual but also things possible to Himself or to created things, as shown above, and as these must be infinite, it must be held that He knows infinite things...

Q92: Whether the knowledge of God is of future contingent things?

Since as was shown above, God knows all things; not only things actual but also things possible to Him and creature; and since some of these are future contingent to us, it follows that God knows future contingent things.

Q93: Whether God knows enunciable things?

Since it is in the power of our intellect to form enunciations, and since God knows whatever is in His own power or in that of creatures, as said above, it follows of necessity that God knows all enunciations that can be formed.

Q94: Whether the knowledge of God is variable?

Since the knowledge of God is His substance, as is clear from the foregoing, just as His substance is altogether immutable, as shown above, so His knowledge likewise must be altogether invariable.

Q95: Whether God has a speculative knowledge of things?

Some knowledge is speculative only; some is practical only; and some is partly speculative and partly practical...

OF IDEAS

Q96: Whether there are ideas?

It is necessary to suppose ideas in the divine mind...

Q97: Whether ideas are many?

It must necessarily be held that ideas are many...

Q98: Whether there are ideas of all things that God knows?

As ideas, according to Plato, are principles of the knowledge of things and of their generation, an idea has this twofold office, as it exists in the mind of God...

OF TRUTH

Q99: Whether truth resides only in the intellect?

As the good denotes that towards which the appetite tends, so the true denotes that towards which the intellect tends...

Q100: Whether truth resides only in the intellect composing and dividing?

As stated before, truth resides, in its primary aspect, in the intellect...

Q101: Whether the true and being are convertible terms?

As good has the nature of what is desirable, so truth is related to knowledge...

Q102: Whether good is logically prior to the true?

Although the good and the true are convertible with being, as to suppositum, yet they differ logically...

Q103: Whether God is truth?

As said above, truth is found in the intellect according as it apprehends a thing as it is; and in things according as they have being conformable to an intellect...

Q104: Whether there is only one truth, according to which all things are true?

In one sense truth, whereby all things are true, is one, and in another sense it is not...

Q105: Whether created truth is eternal?

The truth of enunciations is no other than the truth of the intellect...

Q106: Whether truth is immutable?

Truth, properly speaking, resides only in the intellect, as said before ; but things are called true in virtue of the truth residing in an intellect...

CONCERNING FALSITY

Q107: Whether falsity exists in things?

Since true and false are opposed, and since opposites stand in relation to the same thing, we must needs seek falsity, where primarily we find truth; that is to say, in the intellect...

Q108: Whether there is falsity in the senses?

Falsity is not to be sought in the senses except as truth is in them...

Q109: Whether falsity is in the intellect?

Just as a thing has being by its proper form, so the knowing faculty has knowledge by the likeness of the thing known...

Q110: Whether true and false are contraries?

True and false are opposed as contraries, and not, as some have said, as affirmation and negation...

THE LIFE OF GOD

Q111: Whether to live belongs to all natural things?

We can gather to what things life belongs, and to what it does not, from such things as manifestly possess life...

Q112: Whether life is an operation?

As is clear from what has been said, our intellect, which takes cognizance of the essence of a thing as its proper object, gains knowledge from sense, of which the proper objects are external accidents...

Q113: Whether life is properly attributed to God?

Life is in the highest degree properly in God...

Q114: Whether all things are life in God?

In God to live is to understand, as before stated ...

THE WILL OF GOD

Q115: Whether there is will in God?

There is will in God, as there is intellect: since will follows upon intellect...

Q116: Whether God wills things apart from Himself?

God wills not only Himself, but other things apart from Himself...

Q117: Whether whatever God wills He wills necessarily?

There are two ways in which a thing is said to be necessary, namely, absolutely, and by supposition...

Q118: Whether the will of God is the cause of things?

We must hold that the will of God is the cause of things; and that He acts by the will, and not, as some have supposed, by a necessity of His nature.

Q119: Whether any cause can be assigned to the divine will?

In no wise has the will of God a cause...

Q120: Whether the will of God is always fulfilled?

The will of God must needs always be fulfilled...

Q121: Whether the will of God is changeable?

The will of God is entirely unchangeable...

Q122: Whether the will of God imposes necessity on the things willed?

The divine will imposes necessity on some things willed but not on all...

Q123: Whether God wills evils?

Since the ratio of good is the ratio of appetibility, as said before, and since evil is opposed to good, it is impossible that any evil, as such, should be sought for by the appetite, either natural, or animal, or by the intellectual appetite which is the will...

Q124: Whether God has free-will?

We have free-will with respect to what we will not of necessity, nor be natural instinct...

Q125: Whether the will of expression is to be distinguished in God?

Some things are said of God in their strict sense; others by metaphor, as appears from what has been said before ...

Q126: Whether five expressions of will are rightly assigned to the divine will?

By these signs we name the expression of will by which we are accustomed to show that we will something...

GOD'S LOVE

Q127: Whether love exists in God?

We must needs assert that in God there is love: because love is the first movement of the will and of every appetitive faculty...

Q128: Whether God loves all things?

God loves all existing things...

Q129: Whether God loves all things equally?

Since to love a thing is to will it good, in a twofold way anything may be loved more, or less...

Q130: Whether God always loves more the better things?

It must needs be, according to what has been said before, that God loves more the better things ...

THE JUSTICE AND MERCY OF GOD

Q131: Whether there is justice in God?

There are two kinds of justice...

Q132: Whether the justice of God is truth?

Truth consists in the equation of mind and thing, as said above ...

Q133: Whether mercy can be attributed to God?

Mercy is especially to be attributed to God, as seen in its effect, but not as an affection of passion...

Q134: Whether in every work of God there are mercy and justice?

Mercy and truth are necessarily found in all God's works, if mercy be taken to mean the removal of any kind of defect...

THE PROVIDENCE OF GOD

Q135: Whether providence can suitably be attributed to God?

It is necessary to attribute providence to God...

Q136: Whether everything is subject to the providence of God?

Certain persons totally denied the existence of providence, as Democritus and the Epicureans, maintaining that the world was made by chance...

Q137: Whether God has immediate providence over everything?

Two things belong to providence---namely, the type of the order of things foreordained towards an end; and the execution of this order, which is called government...

Q138: Whether providence imposes any necessity on things foreseen?

Divine providence imposes necessity upon some things; not upon all, as some formerly believed...

OF PREDESTINATION

Q139: Whether men are predestined by God?

It is fitting that God should predestine men...

Q140: Whether predestination places anything in the predestined?

Predestination is not anything in the predestined; but only in the person who predestines...

Q141: Whether God reprobates any man?

God does reprobate some...

Q142: Whether the predestined are chosen by God?

Predestination presupposes election in the order of reason; and election presupposes love...

Q143: Whether the foreknowledge of merits is the cause of predestination?

Since predestination includes will, as was said above, the reason of predestination must be sought for in the same way as was the reason of the will of God...

Q144: Whether predestination is certain?

Predestination most certainly and infallibly takes effect; yet it does not impose any necessity, so that, namely, its effect should take place from necessity...

Q145: Whether the number of the predestined is certain?

The number of the predestined is certain...

Q146: Whether predestination can be furthered by the prayers of the saints?

Concerning this question, there were different errors...

THE BOOK OF LIFE

Q147: Whether the book of life is the same as predestination?

The book of life is in God taken in a metaphorical sense, according to a comparison with human affairs...

Q148: Whether the book of life regards only the life of glory of the predestined?

The book of life, as stated above, implies a conscription or a knowledge of those chosen to life...

Q149: Whether anyone may be blotted out of the book of life?

Some have said that none could be blotted out of the book of life as a matter of fact, but only in the opinion of men...

THE POWER OF GOD

Q150: Whether there is power in God?

Power is twofold---namely, passive, which exists not at all in God; and active, which we must assign to Him in the highest degree...

Q151: Whether the power of God is infinite?

As stated above, active power exists in God according to the measure in which He is actual...

Q152: Whether God is omnipotent?

All confess that God is omnipotent; but it seems difficult to explain in what His omnipotence precisely consists: for there may be doubt as to the precise meaning of the word 'all' when we say that God can do all things...

Q153: Whether God can make the past not to have been?

As was said above, there does not fall under the scope of God's omnipotence anything that implies a contradiction...

Q154: Whether God can do what He does not?

In this matter certain persons erred in two ways...

Q155: Whether God can do better than what He does?

The goodness of anything is twofold; one, which is of the essence of it---thus, for instance, to be rational pertains to the essence of man...

OF THE DIVINE BEATITUDE

Q156: Whether beatitude belongs to God?

Beatitude belongs to God in a very special manner...

Q157: Whether God is called blessed in respect of His intellect?

Beatitude, as stated above, is the perfect good of an intellectual nature...

Q158: Whether God is the beatitude of each of the blessed?

The beatitude of an intellectual nature consists in an act of the intellect...

Q159: Whether all other beatitude is included in the beatitude of God?

Whatever is desirable in whatsoever beatitude, whether true or false, pre-exists wholly and in a more eminent degree in the divine beatitude...

TREATISE ON THE MOST HOLY TRINITY

THE PROCESSION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS

Q160: Whether there is procession in God?

Divine Scripture uses, in relation to God, names which signify procession...

Q161: Whether any procession in God can be called generation?

The procession of the Word in God is called generation...

Q162: Whether any other procession exists in God besides that of the Word?

There are two processions in God; the procession of the Word, and another.

Q163: Whether the procession of love in God is generation?

The procession of love in God ought not to be called generation...

Q164: Whether there are more than two processions in God?

The divine processions can be derived only from the actions which remain within the agent...

THE DIVINE RELATIONS

Q165: Whether there are real relations in God?

Relations exist in God really; in proof whereof we may consider that in relations alone is found something which is only in the apprehension and not in reality...

Q166: Whether relation in God is the same as His essence?

It is reported that Gilbert de la Porree erred on this point, but revoked his error later at the council of Rheims...

Q167: Whether the relations in God are really distinguished from each other?

The attributing of anything to another involves the attribution likewise of whatever is contained in it...

Q168: Whether in God there are only four real relations---paternity, filiation, spiration, and procession?

According to the Philosopher, every relation is based either on quantity, as double and half; or on action and passion, as the doer and the deed, the father and the son, the master and the servant, and the like...

THE DIVINE PERSONS

Q169: The definition of "person"

Although the universal and particular exist in every genus, nevertheless, in a certain special way, the individual belongs to the genus of substance...

Q170: Whether "person" is the same as hypostasis, subsistence, and essence?

According to the Philosopher, substance is twofold...

Q171: Whether the word "person" should be said of God?

"Person" signifies what is most perfect in all nature---that is, a subsistent individual of a rational nature...

Q172: Whether this word "person" signifies relation?

A difficulty arises concerning the meaning of this word "person" in God, from the fact that it is predicated plurally of the Three in contrast to the nature of the names belonging to the essence; nor does it in itself refer to another, as do the words which express relation.

THE PLURALITY OF PERSONS IN GOD

Q173: Whether there are several persons in God?

It follows from what precedes that there are several persons in God...

Q174: Whether there are more than three persons in God?

As was explained above, there can be only three persons in God...

Q175: Whether the numeral terms denote anything real in God?

The Master considers that the numeral terms do not denote anything positive in God, but have only a negative meaning...

Q176: Whether this term "person" can be common to the three persons?

The very mode of expression itself shows that this term "person" is common to the three when we say "three persons"; for when we say "three men" we show that "man" is common to the three...

OF WHAT BELONGS TO THE UNITY OR PLURALITY IN GOD

Q177: Whether there is trinity in God?

The name "Trinity" in God signifies the determinate number of persons...

Q178: Whether the Son is other than the Father?

Since as Jerome remarks, a heresy arises from words wrongly used, when we speak of the Trinity we must proceed with care and with befitting modesty; because, as Augustine says, "nowhere is error more harmful, the quest more toilsome, the finding more fruitful"...

Q179: Whether the exclusive word "alone" should be added to the essential term in God?

This term "alone" can be taken as a categorematical term, or as a syncategorematical term...

Q180: Whether an exclusive diction can be joined to the personal term?

When we say, "The Father alone is God," such a proposition can be taken in several senses...

THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE DIVINE PERSONS

Q181: Whether the trinity of the divine persons can be known by natural reason?

It is impossible to attain to the knowledge of the Trinity by natural reason...

Q182: Whether there are notions in God?

Prepositivus, considering the simplicity of the persons, said that in God there were no properties or notions, and wherever there were mentioned, he propounded the abstract for the concrete...

Q183: Whether there are five notions?

A notion is the proper idea whereby we know a divine Person...

Q184: Whether it is lawful to have various contrary opinions of notions?

Anything is of faith in two ways; directly, where any truth comes to us principally as divinely taught, as the trinity and unity of God, the Incarnation of the Son, and the like; and concerning these truths a false opinion of itself involves heresy, especially if it be held obstinately...

OF THE PERSON OF THE FATHER

Q185: Whether it belongs to the Father to be the principle?

The word "principle" signifies only that whence another proceeds: since anything whence something proceeds in any way we call a principle; and conversely...

Q186: Whether this name "Father" is properly the name of a divine person?

The proper name of any person signifies that whereby the person is distinguished from all other persons...

Q187: Whether this name "Father" is applied to God, firstly as a personal name?

A name is applied to that wherein is perfectly contained its whole signification, before it is applied to that which only partially contains it; for the latter bears the name by reason of a kind of similitude to that which answers perfectly to the signification of the name; since all imperfect things are taken from perfect things...

Q188: Whether it is proper to the Father to be unbegotten?

As in creatures there exist a first and a secondary principle, so also in the divine Persons, in Whom there is no before or after, is formed the principle not from a principle, Who is the Father; and the principle from a principle, Who is the Son.

OF THE PERSON OF THE SON

Q189: Whether Word in God is a personal name?

The name of Word in God, if taken in its proper sense, is a personal name, and in no way an essential name.

Q190: Whether "Word" is the Son's proper name?

"Word," said of God in its proper sense, is used personally, and is the proper name of the person of the Son...

Q191: Whether the name "Word" imports relation to creatures?

Word implies relation to creatures...

OF THE IMAGE

Q192: Whether image in God is said personally?

Image includes the idea of similitude...

Q193: Whether the name of Image is proper to the Son?

The Greek Doctors commonly say that the Holy Ghost is the Image of both the Father and of the Son; but the Latin Doctors attribute the name Image to the Son alone...

OF THE PERSON OF THE HOLY GHOST

Q194: Whether this name "Holy Ghost" is the proper name of one divine person?

While there are two processions in God, one of these, the procession of love, has no proper name of its own, as stated above ...

Q195: Whether the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Son?

It must be said that the Holy Ghost is from the Son...

Q196: Whether the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Father through the Son?

Whenever one is said to act through another, this preposition "through" points out, in what is covered by it, some cause or principle of that act...

Q197: Whether the Father and the Son are one principle of the Holy Ghost?

The Father and the Son are in everything one, wherever there is no distinction between them of opposite relation...

OF THE NAME OF THE HOLY GHOST---LOVE

Q198: Whether "Love" is the proper name of the Holy Ghost?

The name Love in God can be taken essentially and personally...

Q199: Whether the Father and the Son love each other by the Holy Ghost?

A difficulty about this question is objected to the effect that when we say, "the Father loves the Son by the Holy Ghost," since the ablative is construed as denoting a cause, it seems to mean that the Holy Ghost is the principle of love to the Father and the Son; which cannot be admitted.

OF THE NAME OF THE HOLY GHOST, AS GIFT

Q200: Whether "Gift" is a personal name?

The word "gift" imports an aptitude for being given...

Q201: Whether "Gift" is the proper name of the Holy Ghost?

Gift, taken personally in God, is the proper name of the Holy Ghost.

OF THE PERSONS IN RELATION TO THE ESSENCE

Q202: Whether in God the essence is the same as the person?

The truth of this question is quite clear if we consider the divine simplicity...

Q203: Whether it must be said that the three persons are of one essence?

As above explained, divine things are named by our intellect, not as they really are in themselves, for in that way it knows them not; but in a way that belongs to things created...

Q204: Whether essential names should be predicated in the singular of the three persons?

Some essential names signify the essence after the manner of substantives; while others signify it after the manner of adjectives...

Q205: Whether the concrete essential names can stand for the person?

Some have said that this name "God" and the like, properly according to their nature, stand for the essence, but by reason of some notional adjunct are made to stand for the Person...

Q206: Whether abstract essential names can stand for the person?

Concerning this, the abbot Joachim erred in asserting that as we can say "God begot God," so we can say "Essence begot essence": considering that, by reason of the divine simplicity God is nothing else but the divine essence...

Q207: Whether the persons can be predicated of the essential terms?

As above explained, although adjectival terms, whether personal or notional, cannot be predicated of the essence, nevertheless substantive terms can be so predicated, owing to the real identity of essence and person...

Q208: Whether the essential names should be appropriated to the persons?

For the manifestation of our faith it is fitting that the essential attributes should be appropriated to the persons...

Q209: Whether the essential attributes are appropriated to the persons in a fitting manner by the holy doctors?

Our intellect, which is led to the knowledge of God from creatures, must consider God according to the mode derived from creatures...

OF THE PERSONS AS COMPARED TO THE RELATIONS OR PROPERTIES

Q210: Whether relation is the same as person?

Different opinions have been held on this point...

Q211: Whether the persons are distinguished by the relations?

In whatever multitude of things is to be found something common to all, it is necessary to seek out the principle of distinction...

Q212: Whether the hypostases remain if the relations are mentally abstracted from the persons?

Abstraction by the intellect is twofold---when the universal is abstracted from the particular, as animal abstracted from man; and when the form is abstracted from the matter, as the form of a circle is abstracted by the intellect from any sensible matter...

Q213: Whether the properties presuppose the notional acts?

According to the opinion that the properties do not distinguish and constitute the hypostases in God, but only manifest them as already distinct and constituted, we must absolutely say that the relations in our mode of understanding follow upon the notional acts, so that we can say, without qualifying the phrase, that "because He begets, He is the Father"...

OF THE PERSONS IN REFERENCE TO THE NOTIONAL ACTS

Q214: Whether the notional acts are to be attributed to the persons?

In the divine persons distinction is founded on origin...

Q215: Whether the notional acts are voluntary?

When anything is said to be, or to be made by the will, this can be understood in two senses...

Q216: Whether the notional acts proceed from something?

The Son was not begotten from nothing, but from the Father's substance...

Q217: Whether in God there is a power in respect of the notional acts?

As the notional acts exist in God, so must there be also a power in God regarding these acts; since power only means the principle of act...

Q218: Whether the power of begetting signifies a relation, and not the essence?

Some have said that the power to beget signifies relation in God...

Q219: Whether several persons can be the term of one notional act?

As Athanasius says, in God there is only "one Father, one Son, one Holy Ghost"...

OF EQUALITY AND LIKENESS AMONG THE DIVINE PERSONS

Q220: Whether there is equality in God?

We must needs admit equality among the divine persons...

Q221: Whether the person proceeding is co-eternal with His principle, as the Son with the Father?

We must say that the Son is co-eternal with the Father...

Q222: Whether in the divine persons there exists an order of nature?

Order always has reference to some principle...

Q223: Whether the Son is equal to the Father in greatness?

The Son is necessarily equal to the Father in greatness...

Q224: Whether the Son is in the Father, and conversely?

There are three points of consideration as regards the Father and the Son; the essence, the relation and the origin; and according to each the Son and the Father are in each other...

Q225: Whether the Son is equal to the Father in power?

The Son is necessarily equal to the Father in power...

THE MISSION OF THE DIVINE PERSONS

Q226: Whether a divine person can be properly sent?

The notion of mission includes two things: the habitude of the one sent to the sender; and that of the one sent to the end whereto he is sent...

Q227: Whether mission is eternal, or only temporal?

A certain difference is to be observed in all the words that express the origin of the divine persons...

Q228: Whether the invisible mission of the divine person is only according to the gift of sanctifying grace?

The divine person is fittingly sent in the sense that He exists newly in any one; and He is given as possessed by anyone; and neither of these is otherwise than by sanctifying grace.

Q229: Whether the Father can be fittingly sent?

The very idea of mission means procession from another, and in God it means procession according to origin, as above expounded...

Q230: Whether it is fitting for the Son to be sent invisibly?

The whole Trinity dwells in the mind by sanctifying grace, according to Jn. 14:23: "We will come to him, and will make Our abode with him"...

Q231: Whether the invisible mission is to all who participate grace?

As above stated, mission in its very meaning implies that he who is sent either begins to exist where he was not before, as occurs to creatures; or begins to exist where he was before, but in a new way, in which sense mission is ascribed to the divine persons...

Q232: Whether it is fitting for the Holy Ghost to be sent visibly?

God provides for all things according to the nature of each thing...

Q233: Whether a divine person is sent only by the person whence He proceeds eternally?

There are different opinions on this point...

TREATISE ON THE CREATION

THE PROCESSION OF CREATURES FROM GOD, AND OF THE FIRST CAUSE OF ALL THINGS

Q234: Whether it is necessary that every being be created by God?

It must be said that every being in any way existing is from God...

Q235: Whether primary matter is created by God?

The ancient philosophers gradually, and as it were step by step, advanced to the knowledge of truth...

Q236: Whether the exemplar cause is anything besides God?

God is the first exemplar cause of all things...

Q237: Whether God is the final cause of all things?

Every agent acts for an end: otherwise one thing would not follow more than another from the action of the agent, unless it were by chance...

THE MODE OF EMANATION OF THINGS FROM THE FIRST PRINCIPLE

Q238: Whether to create is to make something from nothing?

As said above, we must consider not only the emanation of a particular being from a particular agent, but also the emanation of all being from the universal cause, which is God; and this emanation we designate by the name of creation...

Q239: Whether God can create anything?

Not only is it impossible that anything should be created by God, but it is necessary to say that all things were created by God, as appears from what has been said ...

Q240: Whether creation is anything in the creature?

Creation places something in the thing created according to relation only; because what is created, is not made by movement, or by change...

Q241: Whether to be created belongs to composite and subsisting things?

To be created is, in a manner, to be made, as was shown above ...

Q242: Whether it belongs to God alone to create?

It sufficiently appears at the first glance, according to what precedes, that to create can be the action of God alone...

Q243: Whether to create is proper to any person?

To create is, properly speaking, to cause or produce the being of things...

Q244: Whether in creatures is necessarily found a trace of the Trinity?

Every effect in some degree represents its cause, but diversely...

Q245: Whether creation is mingled with works of nature and art?

The doubt on this subject arises from the forms which, some said, do not come into existence by the action of nature, but previously exist in matter; for they asserted that forms are latent...

OF THE BEGINNING OF THE DURATION OF CREATURES

Q246: Whether the universe of creatures always existed?

Nothing except God can be eternal...

Q247: Whether it is an article of faith that the world began?

By faith alone do we hold, and by no demonstration can it be proved, that the world did not always exist, as was said above of the mystery of the Trinity ...

Q248: Whether the creation of things was in the beginning of time?

The words of Genesis, "In the beginning God created heaven and earth," are expounded in a threefold sense in order to exclude three errors...

TREATISE ON THE DISTINCTION OF THINGS IN GENERAL

OF THE DISTINCTION OF THINGS IN GENERAL

Q249: Whether the multitude and distinction of things come from God?

The distinction of things has been ascribed to many causes...

Q250: Whether the inequality of things is from God?

When Origen wished to refute those who said that the distinction of things arose from the contrary principles of good and evil, he said that in the beginning all things were created equal by God...

Q251: Whether there is only one world?

The very order of things created by God shows the unity of the world...

TREATISE ON THE DISTINCTION OF GOOD AND EVIL

THE DISTINCTION OF THINGS IN PARTICULAR

Q252: Whether evil is a nature?

One opposite is known through the other, as darkness is known through light...

Q253: Whether evil is found in things?

As was said above, the perfection of the universe requires that there should be inequality in things, so that every grade of goodness may be realized...

Q254: Whether evil is in good as in its subject?

As was said above, evil imports the absence of good...

Q255: Whether evil corrupts the whole good?

Evil cannot wholly consume good...

Q256: Whether evil is adequately divided into pain* and fault?

Evil, as was said above is the privation of good, which chiefly and of itself consists in perfection and act...

Q257: Whether pain has the nature of evil more than fault has?

Fault has the nature of evil more than pain has; not only more than pain of sense, consisting in the privation of corporeal goods, which kind of pain appeals to most men; but also more than any kind of pain, thus taking pain in its most general meaning, so as to include privation of grace or glory.

THE CAUSE OF EVIL

Q258: Whether good can be the cause of evil?

It must be said that every evil in some way has a cause...

Q259: Whether the supreme good, God, is the cause of evil?

As appears from what was said, the evil which consists in the defect of action is always caused by the defect of the agent...

Q260: Whether there be one supreme evil which is the cause of every evil?

It appears from what precedes that there is no one first principle of evil, as there is one first principle of good.

TREATISE ON THE ANGELS

OF THE SUBSTANCE OF THE ANGELS ABSOLUTELY CONSIDERED

Q261: Whether an angel is altogether incorporeal?

There must be some incorporeal creatures...

Q262: Whether an angel is composed of matter and form?

Some assert that the angels are composed of matter and form; which opinion Avicebron endeavored to establish in his book of the Fount of Life...

Q263: Whether the angels exist in any great number?

There have been various opinions with regard to the number of the separate substances...

Q264: Whether the angels differ in species?

Some have said that all spiritual substances, even souls, are of the one species...

Q265: Whether the angels are incorruptible?

It must necessarily be maintained that the angels are incorruptible of their own nature...

OF THE ANGELS IN COMPARISON WITH BODIES

Q266: Whether the angels have bodies naturally united to them?

The angels have not bodies naturally united to them...

Q267: Whether angels assume bodies?

Some have maintained that the angels never assume bodies, but that all that we read in Scripture of apparitions of angels happened in prophetic vision---that is, according to imagination...

Q268: Whether the angels exercise functions of life in the bodies assumed?

Some functions of living subjects have something in common with other operations; just as speech, which is the function of a living creature, agrees with other sounds of inanimate things, in so far as it is sound; and walking agrees with other movements, in so far as it is movement...

OF THE ANGELS IN RELATION TO PLACE

Q269: Whether an angel is in a place?

It is befitting an angel to be in a place; yet an angel and a body are said to be in a place in quite a different sense...

Q270: Whether an angel can be in several places at once?

An angel's power and nature are finite, whereas the Divine power and essence, which is the universal cause of all things, is infinite: consequently God through His power touches all things, and is not merely present in some places, but is everywhere...

Q271: Whether several angels can be at the same time in the same place?

There are not two angels in the same place...

OF THE LOCAL MOVEMENT OF THE ANGELS

Q272: Whether an angel can be moved locally?

A beatified angel can be moved locally...

Q273: Whether an angel passes through intermediate space?

As was observed above in the preceding article, the local motion of an angel can be continuous, and non-continuous...

Q274: Whether the movement of an angel is instantaneous?

Some have maintained that the local movement of an angel is instantaneous...

OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE ANGELS

Q275: Whether an angel's act of understanding is his substance?

It is impossible for the action of an angel, or of any creature, to be its own substance...

Q276: Whether in the angel to understand is to exist?

The action of the angel, as also the action of any creature, is not his existence...

Q277: Whether an angel's power of intelligence is his essence?

Neither in an angel nor in any creature, is the power or operative faculty the same as its essence: which is made evident thus...

Q278: Whether there is an active and a passive intellect in an angel?

The necessity for admitting a passive intellect in us is derived from the fact that we understand sometimes only in potentiality, and not actually...

Q279: Whether there is only intellectual knowledge in the angels?

In our soul there are certain powers whose operations are exercised by corporeal organs; such powers are acts of sundry parts of the body, as sight of the eye, and hearing of the ear...

OF THE MEDIUM OF THE ANGELIC KNOWLEDGE

Q280: Whether the angels know all things by their substance?

The medium through which the intellect understands, is compared to the intellect understanding it as its form, because it is by the form that the agent acts...

Q281: Whether the angels understand by species drawn from things?

The species whereby the angels understand are not drawn from things, but are connatural to them...

Q282: Whether the higher angels understand by more universal species than the lower angels?

For this reason are some things of a more exalted nature, because they are nearer to and more like unto the first, which is God...

OF THE ANGEL'S KNOWLEDGE OF IMMATERIAL THINGS

Q283: Whether an angel knows himself?

As is evident from what has been previously said, the object is on a different footing in an immanent, and in a transient, action...

Q284: Whether one angel knows another?

As Augustine says, such things as pre-existed from eternity in the Word of God, came forth from Him in two ways: first, into the angelic mind; and secondly, so as to subsist in their own natures...

Q285: Whether an angle knows God by his own natural principles?

The angels can have some knowledge of God by their own principles...

OF THE ANGEL'S KNOWLEDGE OF MATERIAL THINGS

Q286: Whether the angels know material things?

The established order of things is for the higher beings to be more perfect than the lower; and for whatever is contained deficiently, partially, and in manifold manner in the lower beings, to be contained in the higher eminently, and in a certain degree of fulness and simplicity...

Q287: Whether an angel knows singulars?

Some have denied to the angels all knowledge of singulars...

Q288: Whether angels know the future?

The future can be known in two ways...

Q289: Whether angels know secret thoughts?

A secret thought can be known in two ways: first, in its effect...

Q290: Whether the angels know the mysteries of grace?

There is a twofold knowledge in the angel...

OF THE MODE OF ANGELIC KNOWLEDGE

Q291: Whether the angel's intellect is sometimes in potentiality, sometimes in act?

As the Philosopher states, the intellect is in potentiality in two ways; first, "as before learning or discovering," that is, before it has the habit of knowledge; secondly, as "when it possesses the habit of knowledge, but does not actually consider"...

Q292: Whether an angel can understand many things at the same time?

As unity of term is requisite for unity of movement, so is unity of object required for unity of operation...

Q293: Whether an angel's knowledge is discursive?

As has often been stated, the angels hold that grade among spiritual substances which the heavenly bodies hold among corporeal substances: for Dionysius calls them "heavenly minds" ...

Q294: Whether the angels understand by composing and dividing?

As in the intellect, when reasoning, the conclusion is compared with the principle, so in the intellect composing and dividing, the predicate is compared with the subject...

Q295: Whether there can be falsehood in the intellect of an angel?

The truth of this question depends partly upon what has gone before...

Q296: Whether there is a "morning" and an "evening" knowledge in the angels?

The expression "morning" and "evening" knowledge was devised by Augustine; who interprets the six days wherein God made all things, not as ordinary days measured by the solar circuit, since the sun was only made on the fourth day, but as one day, namely, the day of angelic knowledge as directed to six classes of things...

Q297: Whether the morning and evening knowledge are one?

As was observed, the evening knowledge is that by which the angels know things in their proper nature...

THE WILL OF THE ANGELS

Q298: Whether there is will in the angels?

We must necessarily place a will in the angels...

Q299: Whether in the angels the will differs from the intellect?

In the angels the will is a special faculty or power, which is neither their nature nor their intellect...

Q300: Whether there is free-will in the angels?

Some things there are which act, not from any previous judgment, but, as it were, moved and made to act by others; just as the arrow is directed to the target by the archer...

Q301: Whether there is an irascible and a concupiscible appetite in the angels?

The intellective appetite is not divided into irascible and concupiscible; only the sensitive appetite is so divided...

OF THE LOVE OR DILECTION OF THE ANGELS

Q302: Whether there is natural love or dilection in an angel?

We must necessarily place natural love in the angels...

Q303: Whether there is love of choice in the angels?

There exists in the angels a natural love, and a love of choice...

Q304: Whether the angel loves himself with both natural love, and love of choice?

Since the object of love is good, and good is to be found both in substance and in accident, as is clear from Ethic. i, 6, a thing may be loved in two ways; first of all as a subsisting good; and secondly as an accidental or inherent good...

Q305: Whether an angel loves another with natural love as he loves himself?

As was observed, both angel and man naturally love self...

Q306: Whether an angel by natural love loves God more than he loves himself?

There have been some who maintained that an angel loves God more than himself with natural love, both as to the love of concupiscence, through his seeking the Divine good for himself rather than his own good; and, in a fashion, as to the love of friendship, in so far as he naturally desires a greater good to God than to himself; because he naturally wishes God to be God, while as for himself, he wills to have his own nature...

OF THE PRODUCTION OF THE ANGELS IN THE ORDER OF NATURAL BEING

Q307: Whether the angels have a cause of their existence?

It must be affirmed that angels and everything existing, except God, were made by God...

Q308: Whether the angel was produced by God from eternity?

God alone, Father, Son and Holy Ghost, is from eternity...

Q309: Whether the angels were created before the corporeal world?

There is a twofold opinion on this point to be found in the writings of the Fathers...

Q310: Whether the angels were created in the empyrean heaven?

As was observed, the universe is made up of corporeal and spiritual creatures...

OF THE PERFECTION OF THE ANGELS IN THE ORDER OF GRACE AND OF GLORY

Q311: Whether the angels were created in beatitude?

By the name of beatitude is understood the ultimate perfection of rational or of intellectual nature; and hence it is that it is naturally desired, since everything naturally desires its ultimate perfection...

Q312: Whether an angel needs grace in order to turn to God?

The angels stood in need of grace in order to turn to God, as the object of beatitude...

Q313: Whether the angels were created in grace?

Although there are conflicting opinions on this point, some holding that the angels were created only in a natural state, while others maintain that they were created in grace; yet it seems more probable, and more in keeping with the sayings of holy men, that they were created in sanctifying grace...

Q314: Whether an angel merits his beatitude?

Perfect beatitude is natural only to God, because existence and beatitude are one and the same thing in Him...

Q315: Whether the angel obtained beatitude immediately after one act of merit?

The angel was beatified instantly after the first act of charity, whereby he merited beatitude...

Q316: Whether the angels receive grace and glory according to the degree of their natural gifts?

It is reasonable to suppose that gifts of graces and perfection of beatitude were bestowed on the angels according to the degree of their natural gifts...

Q317: Whether natural knowledge and love remain in the beatified angels?

Natural knowledge and love remain in the angels...

Q318: Whether a beatified angel can sin?

The beatified angels cannot sin...

Q319: Whether the beatified angels advance in beatitude?

In every movement the mover's intention is centered upon one determined end, to which he intends to lead the movable subject; because intention looks to the end, to which infinite progress is repugnant...

THE MALICE OF THE ANGELS WITH REGARD TO SIN

Q320: Whether the evil of fault can be in the angels?

An angel or any other rational creature considered in his own nature, can sin; and to whatever creature it belongs not to sin, such creature has it as a gift of grace, and not from the condition of nature...

Q321: Whether only the sin of pride and envy can exist in an angel?

Sin can exist in a subject in two ways: first of all by actual guilt, and secondly by affection...

Q322: Whether the devil desired to be as God?

Without doubt the angel sinned by seeking to be as God...

Q323: Whether any demons are naturally wicked?

Everything which exists, so far as it exists and has a particular nature, tends naturally towards some good; since it comes from a good principle; because the effect always reverts to its principle...

Q324: Whether the devil was wicked by the fault of his own will in the first instant of his creation?

Some have maintained that the demons were wicked straightway in the first instant of their creation; not by their nature, but by the sin of their own will; because, as soon as he was made, the devil refused righteousness...

Q325: Whether there was any interval between the creation and the fall of the angel?

There is a twofold opinion on this point...

Q326: Whether the highest angel among those who sinned was the highest of all?

Two things have to be considered in sin, namely, the proneness to sin, and the motive for sinning...

Q327: Whether the sin of the highest angel was the cause of the others sinning?

The sin of the highest angel was the cause of the others sinning; not as compelling them, but as inducing them by a kind of exhortation...

Q328: Whether those who sinned were as many as those who remained firm?

More angels stood firm than sinned...

THE PUNISHMENT OF THE DEMONS

Q329: Whether the demons' intellect is darkened by privation of the knowledge of all truth?

The knowledge of truth is twofold: one which comes of nature, and one which comes of grace...

Q330: Whether the will of the demons is obstinate in evil?

It was Origen's opinion that every will of the creature can by reason of free-will be inclined to good and evil; with the exception of the soul of Christ on account of the union of the Word...

Q331: Whether there is sorrow in the demons?

Fear, sorrow, joy, and the like, so far as they are passions, cannot exist in the demons; for thus they are proper to the sensitive appetite, which is a power in a corporeal organ...

Q332: Whether our atmosphere is the demons' place of punishment?

The angels in their own nature stand midway between God and men...

TREATISE ON THE WORK OF THE SIX DAYS

THE WORK OF CREATION OF CORPOREAL CREATURES

Q333: Whether corporeal creatures are from God?

Certain heretics maintain that visible things are not created by the good God, but by an evil principle, and allege in proof of their error the words of the Apostle, "The god of this world hath blinded the minds of unbelievers"...

Q334: Whether corporeal things were made on account of God's goodness?

Origen laid down that corporeal creatures were not made according to God's original purpose, but in punishment of the sin of spiritual creatures...

Q335: Whether corporeal creatures were produced by God through the medium of the angels?

Some have maintained that creatures proceeded from God by degrees, in such a way that the first creature proceeded from Him immediately, and in its turn produced another, and so on until the production of corporeal creatures...

Q336: Whether the forms of bodies are from the angels?

It was the opinion of some that all corporeal forms are derived from spiritual substances, which we call the angels...

ON THE ORDER OF CREATION TOWARDS DISTINCTION

Q337: Whether formlessness of created matter preceded in time its formation?

On this point holy men differ in opinion...

Q338: Whether the formless matter of all corporeal things is the same?

On this question the opinions of philosophers have differed...

Q339: Whether the empyrean heaven was created at the same time as formless matter?

The empyrean heaven rests only on the authority of Strabus and Bede, and also of Basil; all of whom agree in one respect, namely, in holding it to be the place of the blessed...

Q340: Whether time was created simultaneously with formless matter?

It is commonly said that the first things created were these four---the angelic nature, the empyrean heaven, formless corporeal matter, and time...

ON THE WORK OF DISTINCTION IN ITSELF

Q341: Whether the word "light" is used in its proper sense in speaking of spiritual things?

Any word may be used in two ways---that is to say, either in its original application or in its more extended meaning...

Q342: Whether light is a body?

Light cannot be a body, for three evident reasons...

Q343: Whether light is a quality?

Some writers have said that the light in the air has not a natural being such as the color on a wall has, but only an intentional being, as a similitude of color in the air...

Q344: Whether the production of light is fittingly assigned to the first day?

There are two opinions as to the production of light...

ON THE WORK OF THE SECOND DAY

Q345: Whether the firmament was made on the second day?

In discussing questions of this kind two rules are to observed, as Augustine teaches ...

Q346: Whether there are waters above the firmament? Whether the firmament divides waters from waters?

The text of Genesis, considered superficially, might lead to the adoption of a theory similar to that held by certain philosophers of antiquity, who taught that water was a body infinite in dimension, and the primary element of all bodies...

Q347: Whether there is only one heaven?

On this point there seems to be a diversity of opinion between Basil and Chrysostom...

ON THE WORK OF THE THIRD DAY

Q348: Whether it was fitting that the gathering together of the waters should take place, as recorded, on the third day?

It is necessary to reply differently to this question according to the different interpretations given by Augustine and other holy writers...

Q349: Whether it was fitting that the production of plants should take place on the third day?

On the third day, as said, the formless state of the earth comes to an end...

OF THE WORK OF ADORNMENT, AS REGARDS THE FOURTH DAY

Q350: Whether the lights ought to have been produced on the fourth day?

In recapitulating the Divine works, Scripture says : "So the heavens and the earth were finished and all the furniture of them," thereby indicating that the work was threefold...

Q351: Whether the cause assigned for the production of the lights is reasonable?

As we have said above, a corporeal creature can be considered as made either for the sake of its proper act, or for other creatures, or for the whole universe, or for the glory of God...

Q352: Whether the lights of heaven are living beings?

Philosophers have differed on this question...

ON THE WORK OF THE FIFTH DAY

Q353: We must next consider the work of the fifth day.

As said above,, the order of the work of adornment corresponds to the order of the work of distinction...

ON THE WORK OF THE SIXTH DAY

Q354: We must now consider the work of the sixth day.

As on the fifth day the intermediate body, namely, the water, is adorned, and thus that day corresponds to the second day; so the sixth day, on which the lowest body, or the earth, is adorned by the production of land animals, corresponds to the third day...

ON THE THINGS THAT BELONG TO THE SEVENTH DAY

Q355: Whether the completion of the Divine works ought to be ascribed to the seventh day?

The perfection of a thing is twofold, the first perfection and the second perfection...

Q356: Whether God rested on the seventh day from all His work?

Rest is, properly speaking, opposed to movement, and consequently to the labor that arises from movement...

Q357: Whether blessing and sanctifying are due to the seventh day?

As said above, God's rest on the seventh day is understood in two ways...

ON ALL THE SEVEN DAYS IN COMMON

Q358: Whether these days are sufficiently enumerated?

The reason of the distinction of these days is made clear by what has been said above, namely, that the parts of the world had first to be distinguished, and then each part adorned and filled, as it were, by the beings that inhabit it...

Q359: Whether all these days are one day?

On this question Augustine differs from other expositors...

Q360: Whether Scripture uses suitable words to express the work of the six days?

TREATISE ON MAN

OF MAN WHO IS COMPOSED OF A SPIRITUAL AND A CORPOREAL SUBSTANCE: AND IN THE FIRST PLACE, CONCERNING WHAT BELONGS TO THE ESSENCE OF THE SOUL

Q361: Whether the soul is a body?

To seek the nature of the soul, we must premise that the soul is defined as the first principle of life of those things which live: for we call living things "animate,", and those things which have no life, "inanimate"...

Q362: Whether the human soul is something subsistent?

It must necessarily be allowed that the principle of intellectual operation which we call the soul, is a principle both incorporeal and subsistent...

Q363: Whether the souls of brute animals are subsistent?

The ancient philosophers made no distinction between sense and intellect, and referred both a corporeal principle, as has been said ...

Q364: Whether the soul is man?

The assertion "the soul is man," can be taken in two senses...

Q365: Whether the soul is composed of matter and form?

The soul has no matter...

Q366: Whether the human soul is incorruptible?

We must assert that the intellectual principle which we call the human soul is incorruptible...

Q367: Whether the soul is of the same species as an angel?

Origen held that human souls and angels are all of the same species; and this because he supposed that in these substances the difference of degree was accidental, as resulting from their free-will: as we have seen above ...

OF THE UNION OF BODY AND SOUL

Q368: Whether the intellectual principle is united to the body as its form?

We must assert that the intellect which is the principle of intellectual operation is the form of the human body...

Q369: Whether the intellectual principle is multiplied according to the number of bodies?

It is absolutely impossible for one intellect to belong to all men...

Q370: Whether besides the intellectual soul there are in man other souls essentially different from one another?

Plato held that there were several souls in one body, distinct even as to organs, to which souls he referred the different vital actions, saying that the nutritive power is in the liver, the concupiscible in the heart, and the power of knowledge in the brain...

Q371: Whether in man there is another form besides the intellectual soul?

If we suppose that the intellectual soul is not united to the body as its form, but only as its motor, as the Platonists maintain, it would necessarily follow that in man there is another substantial form, by which the body is established in its being as movable by the soul...

Q372: Whether the intellectual soul is properly united to such a body?

Since the form is not for the matter, but rather the matter for the form, we must gather from the form the reason why the matter is such as it is; and not conversely...

Q373: Whether the intellectual soul is united to the body through the medium of accidental dispositions?

If the soul were united to the body, merely as a motor, there would be nothing to prevent the existence of certain dispositions mediating between the soul and the body; on the contrary, they would be necessary, for on the part of the soul would be required the power to move the body; and on the part of the body, a certain aptitude to be moved by the soul.

Q374: Whether the soul is united to the animal body by means of a body?

If the soul, according to the Platonists, were united to the body merely as a motor, it would be right to say that some other bodies must intervene between the soul and body of man, or any animal whatever; for a motor naturally moves what is distant from it by means of something nearer.

Q375: Whether the soul is in each part of the body?

As we have said, if the soul were united to the body merely as its motor, we might say that it is not in each part of the body, but only in one part through which it would move the others...

OF THOSE THINGS WHICH BELONG TO THE POWERS OF THE SOUL IN GENERAL

Q376: Whether the essence of the soul is its power?

It is impossible to admit that the power of the soul is its essence, although some have maintained it...

Q377: Whether there are several powers of the soul?

Of necessity we must place several powers in the soul...

Q378: Whether the powers are distinguished by their acts and objects?

A power as such is directed to an act...

Q379: Whether among the powers of the soul there is order?

Since the soul is one, and the powers are many; and since a number of things that proceed from one must proceed in a certain order; there must be some order among the powers of the soul...

Q380: Whether all the powers of the soul are in the soul as their subject?

The subject of operative power is that which is able to operate, for every accident denominates its proper subject...

Q381: Whether the powers of the soul flow from its essence?

The substantial and the accidental form partly agree and partly differ...

Q382: Whether one power of the soul arises from another?

In those things which proceed from one according to a natural order, as the first is the cause of all, so that which is nearer to the first is, in a way, the cause of those which are more remote...

Q383: Whether all the powers remain in the soul when separated from the body?

As we have said already, all the powers of the soul belong to the soul alone as their principle...

OF THE SPECIFIC POWERS OF THE SOUL

Q384: Whether there are to be distinguished five genera of powers in the soul?

There are five genera of powers of the soul, as above numbered...

Q385: Whether the parts of the vegetative soul are fittingly described as the nutritive, augmentative, and generative?

The vegetative part has three powers...

Q386: Whether the five exterior senses are properly distinguished?

The reason of the distinction and number of the senses has been assigned by some to the organs in which one or other of the elements preponderate, as water, air, or the like...

Q387: Whether the interior senses are suitably distinguished?

As nature does not fail in necessary things, there must needs be as many actions of the sensitive soul as may suffice for the life of a perfect animal...

OF THE INTELLECTUAL POWERS

Q388: Whether the intellect is a power of the soul?

In accordance with what has been already shown it is necessary to say that the intellect is a power of the soul, and not the very essence of the soul...

Q389: Whether the intellect is a passive power?

To be passive may be taken in three ways...

Q390: Whether there is an active intellect?

According to the opinion of Plato, there is no need for an active intellect in order to make things actually intelligible; but perhaps in order to provide intellectual light to the intellect, as will be explained farther on ...

Q391: Whether the active intellect is something in the soul?

The active intellect, of which the Philosopher speaks, is something in the soul...

Q392: Whether the active intellect is one in all?

The truth about this question depends on what we have already said ...

Q393: Whether memory is in the intellectual part of the soul?

Since it is of the nature of the memory to preserve the species of those things which are not actually apprehended, we must first of all consider whether the intelligible species can thus be preserved in the intellect: because Avicenna held that this was impossible...

Q394: Whether the intellectual memory is a power distinct from the intellect?

As has been said above, the powers of the soul are distinguished by the different formal aspects of their objects: since each power is defined in reference to that thing to which it is directed and which is its object...

Q395: Whether the reason is distinct from the intellect?

Reason and intellect in man cannot be distinct powers...

Q396: Whether the higher and lower reason are distinct powers?

The higher and lower reason, as they are understood by Augustine, can in no way be two powers of the soul...

Q397: Whether intelligence is a power distinct from intellect?

This word "intelligence" properly signifies the intellect's very act, which is to understand...

Q398: Whether the speculative and practical intellects are distinct powers?

The speculative and practical intellects are not distinct powers...

Q399: Whether synderesis is a special power of the soul distinct from the others?

"Synderesis" is not a power but a habit; though some held that it is a power higher than reason; while others said that it is reason itself, not as reason, but as a nature...

Q400: Whether conscience be a power?

Properly speaking, conscience is not a power, but an act...

OF THE APPETITIVE POWERS IN GENERAL

Q401: Whether the appetite is a special power of the soul?

It is necessary to assign an appetitive power to the soul...

Q402: Whether the sensitive and intellectual appetites are distinct powers?

We must needs say that the intellectual appetite is a distinct power from the sensitive appetite...

OF THE POWER OF SENSUALITY

Q403: Whether sensuality is only appetitive?

The name sensuality seems to be taken from the sensual movement, of which Augustine speaks, just as the name of a power is taken from its act; for instance, sight from seeing...

Q404: Whether the sensitive appetite is divided into the irascible and concupiscible as distinct powers?

The sensitive appetite is one generic power, and is called sensuality; but it is divided into two powers, which are species of the sensitive appetite---the irascible and the concupiscible...

Q405: Whether the irascible and concupiscible appetites obey reason?

In two ways the irascible and concupiscible powers obey the higher part, in which are the intellect or reason, and the will; first, as to reason, secondly as to the will...

OF THE WILL

Q406: Whether the will desires something of necessity?

The word "necessity" is employed in many ways...

Q407: Whether the will desires of necessity, whatever it desires?

The will does not desire of necessity whatsoever it desires...

Q408: Whether the will is a higher power than the intellect?

The superiority of one thing over another can be considered in two ways: "absolutely" and "relatively"...

Q409: Whether the will moves the intellect?

A thing is said to move in two ways: First, as an end; for instance, when we say that the end moves the agent...

Q410: Whether we should distinguish irascible and concupiscible parts in the superior appetite?

The irascible and concupiscible are not parts of the intellectual appetite, which is called the will...

OF FREE-WILL

Q411: Whether man has free-will?

Man has free-will: otherwise counsels, exhortations, commands, prohibitions, rewards, and punishments would be in vain...

Q412: Whether free-will is a power?

Although free-will in its strict sense denotes an act, in the common manner of speaking we call free-will, that which is the principle of the act by which man judges freely...

Q413: Whether free-will is an appetitive power?

The proper act of free-will is choice: for we say that we have a free-will because we can take one thing while refusing another; and this is to choose...

Q414: Whether free-will is a power distinct from the will?

The appetitive powers must be proportionate to the apprehensive powers, as we have said above ...

HOW THE SOUL WHILE UNITED TO THE BODY UNDERSTANDS CORPOREAL THINGS BENEATH IT

Q415: Whether the soul knows bodies through the intellect?

It should be said in order to elucidate this question, that the early philosophers, who inquired into the natures of things, thought there was nothing in the world save bodies...

Q416: Whether the soul understands corporeal things through its essence?

The ancient philosophers held that the soul knows bodies through its essence...

Q417: Whether the soul understands all things through innate species?

Since form is the principle of action, a thing must be related to the form which is the principle of an action, as it is to that action: for instance, if upward motion is from lightness, then that which only potentially moves upwards must needs be only potentially light, but that which actually moves upwards must needs be actually light...

Q418: Whether the intelligible species are derived by the soul from certain separate forms?

Some have held that the intelligible species of our intellect are derived from certain separate forms or substances...

Q419: Whether the intellectual soul knows material things in the eternal types?

As Augustine says : "If those who are called philosophers said by chance anything that was true and consistent with our faith, we must claim it from them as from unjust possessors...

Q420: Whether intellectual knowledge is derived from sensible things?

On this point the philosophers held three opinions...

Q421: Whether the intellect can actually understand through the intelligible species of which it is possessed, without turning to the phantasms?

In the present state of life in which the soul is united to a passible body, it is impossible for our intellect to understand anything actually, except by turning to the phantasms...

Q422: Whether the judgment of the intellect is hindered through suspension of the sensitive powers?

As we have said above, our intellect's proper and proportionate object is the nature of a sensible thing...

OF THE MODE AND ORDER OF UNDERSTANDING

Q423: Whether our intellect understands corporeal and material things by abstraction from phantasms?

As stated above, the object of knowledge is proportionate to the power of knowledge...

Q424: Whether the intelligible species abstracted from the phantasm is related to our intellect as that which is understood?

Some have asserted that our intellectual faculties know only the impression made on them; as, for example, that sense is cognizant only of the impression made on its own organ...

Q425: Whether the more universal is first in our intellectual cognition?

In our knowledge there are two things to be considered...

Q426: Whether we can understand many things at the same time?

The intellect can, indeed, understand many things as one, but not as many: that is to say by "one" but not by "many" intelligible species...

Q427: Whether our intellect understands by composition and division?

The human intellect must of necessity understand by composition and division...

Q428: Whether the intellect can be false?

The Philosopher compares intellect with sense on this point...

Q429: Whether one person can understand one and the same thing better than another can?

A thing being understood more by one than by another may be taken in two senses...

Q430: Whether the intellect understands the indivisible before the divisible?

The object of our intellect in its present state is the quiddity of a material thing, which it abstracts from the phantasms, as above stated ...

WHAT OUR INTELLECT KNOWS IN MATERIAL THINGS

Q431: Whether our intellect knows singulars?

Our intellect cannot know the singular in material things directly and primarily...

Q432: Whether our intellect can know the infinite?

Since a faculty and its object are proportional to each other, the intellect must be related to the infinite, as is its object, which is the quiddity of a material thing...

Q433: Whether our intellect can know contingent things?

Contingent things can be considered in two ways; either as contingent, or as containing some element of necessity, since every contingent thing has in it something necessary: for example, that Socrates runs, is in itself contingent; but the relation of running to motion is necessary, for it is necessary that Socrates move if he runs...

Q434: Whether our intellect can know the future?

We must apply the same distinction to future things, as we applied above to contingent things...

HOW THE INTELLECTUAL SOUL KNOWS ITSELF AND ALL WITHIN ITSELF

Q435: Whether the intellectual soul knows itself by its essence?

Everything is knowable so far as it is in act, and not, so far as it is in potentiality : for a thing is a being, and is true, and therefore knowable, according as it is actual...

Q436: Whether our intellect knows the habits of the soul by their essence?

A habit is a kind of medium between mere power and mere act...

Q437: Whether our intellect knows its own act?

As stated above a thing is intelligible according as it is in act...

Q438: Whether the intellect understands the act of the will?

As stated above, the act of the will is nothing but an inclination consequent on the form understood; just as the natural appetite is an inclination consequent on the natural form...

HOW THE HUMAN SOUL KNOWS WHAT IS ABOVE ITSELF

Q439: Whether the human soul in the present state of life can understand immaterial substances in themselves?

In the opinion of Plato, immaterial substances are not only understood by us, but are the objects we understand first of all...

Q440: Whether our intellect can understand immaterial substances through its knowledge of material things?

Averroes says that a philosopher named Avempace taught that by the understanding of natural substances we can be led, according to true philosophical principles, to the knowledge of immaterial substances...

Q441: Whether God is the first object known by the human mind?

Since the human intellect in the present state of life cannot understand even immaterial created substances, much less can it understand the essence of the uncreated substance...

OF THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE SEPARATED SOUL

Q442: Whether the separated soul can understand anything?

The difficulty in solving this question arises from the fact that the soul united to the body can understand only by turning to the phantasms, as experience shows...

Q443: Whether the separated soul understands separate substances?

Augustine says, "our mind acquires the knowledge of incorporeal things by itself"---i.e. by knowing itself ...

Q444: Whether the separated soul knows all natural things?

As stated above, the separated soul, like the angels, understands by means of species, received from the influence of the Divine light...

Q445: Whether the separated soul knows singulars?

Separated souls know some singulars, but not all, not even all present singulars...

Q446: Whether the habit of knowledge here acquired remains in the separated soul?

Some say that the habit of knowledge resides not in the intellect itself, but in the sensitive powers, namely, the imaginative, cogitative, and memorative, and that the intelligible species are not kept in the passive intellect...

Q447: Whether the act of knowledge acquired here remains in the separated soul?

Action offers two things for our consideration---its species and its mode...

Q448: Whether local distance impedes the knowledge in the separated soul?

Some have held that the separated soul knows the singular by abstraction from the sensible...

Q449: Whether separated souls know that takes place on earth?

By natural knowledge, of which we are treating now, the souls of the dead do not know what passes on earth...

OF THE FIRST PRODUCTION OF MAN'S SOUL

Q450: Whether the soul was made or was of God's substance?

To say that the soul is of the Divine substance involves a manifest improbability...

Q451: Whether the soul was produced by creation?

The rational soul can be made only by creation; which, however, is not true of other forms...

Q452: Whether the rational soul is produced by God immediately?

Some have held that angels, acting by the power of God, produce rational souls...

Q453: Whether the human soul was produced before the body?

Origen held that not only the soul of the first man, but also the souls of all men were created at the same time as the angels, before their bodies: because he thought that all spiritual substances, whether souls or angels, are equal in their natural condition, and differ only by merit; so that some of them---namely, the souls of men or of heavenly bodies---are united to bodies while others remain in their different orders entirely free from matter...

THE PRODUCTION OF THE FIRST MAN'S BODY

Q454: Whether the body of the first man was made of the slime of the earth?

As God is perfect in His works, He bestowed perfection on all of them according to their capacity: "God's works are perfect" ...

Q455: Whether the human body was immediately produced by God?

The first formation of the human body could not be by the instrumentality of any created power, but was immediately from God...

Q456: Whether the body of man was given an apt disposition?

All natural things were produced by the Divine art, and so may be called God's works of art...

Q457: Whether the production of the human body is fittingly described in Scripture?

As Augustine observes, man surpasses other things, not in the fact that God Himself made man, as though He did not make other things; since it is written, "The work of Thy hands is the heaven," and elsewhere, "His hands laid down the dry land"; but in this, that man is made to God's image...

THE PRODUCTION OF THE WOMAN

Q458: Whether the woman should have been made in the first production of things?

It was necessary for woman to be made, as the Scripture says, as a "helper" to man; not, indeed, as a helpmate in other works, as some say, since man can be more efficiently helped by another man in other works; but as a helper in the work of generation...

Q459: Whether woman should have been made from man?

When all things were first formed, it was more suitable for the woman to be made from man that in other animals...

Q460: Whether the woman was fittingly made from the rib of man?

It was right for the woman to be made from a rib of man...

Q461: Whether the woman was formed immediately by God?

As was said above, the natural generation of every species is from some determinate matter...

THE END OR TERM OF THE PRODUCTION OF MAN

Q462: Whether the image of God is in man?

As Augustine says : "Where an image exists, there forthwith is likeness; but where there is likeness, there is not necessarily an image"...

Q463: Whether the image of God is to be found in irrational creatures?

Not every likeness, not even what is copied from something else, is sufficient to make an image; for if the likeness be only generic, or existing by virtue of some common accident, this does not suffice for one thing to be the image of another...

Q464: Whether the angels are more to the image of God than man is?

We may speak of God's image in two ways...

Q465: Whether the image of God is found in every man?

Since man is said to be the image of God by reason of his intellectual nature, he is the most perfectly like God according to that in which he can best imitate God in his intellectual nature...

Q466: Whether the image of God is in man according to the Trinity of Persons?

As we have seen, the distinction of the Divine Persons is only according to origin, or, rather, relations of origin...

Q467: Whether the image of God is in man as regards the mind only?

While in all creatures there is some kind of likeness to God, in the rational creature alone we find a likeness of "image" as we have explained above ; whereas in other creatures we find a likeness by way of a "trace"...

Q468: Whether the image of God is to be found in the acts of the soul?

As above explained, a certain representation of the species belongs to the nature of an image...

Q469: Whether the image of the Divine Trinity is in the soul only by comparison with God as its object?

As above explained, image means a likeness which in some degree, however small, attains to a representation of the species...

Q470: Whether "likeness" is properly distinguished from "image"?

Likeness is a kind of unity, for oneness in quality causes likeness, as the Philosopher says ...

OF THE STATE AND CONDITION OF THE FIRST MAN AS REGARDS HIS INTELLECT

Q471: Whether the first man saw God through His Essence?

The first man did not see God through His Essence if we consider the ordinary state of that life; unless, perhaps, it be said that he saw God in a vision, when "God cast a deep sleep upon Adam" ...

Q472: Whether Adam in the state of innocence saw the angels through their essence?

The state of the human soul may be distinguished in two ways...

Q473: Whether the first man knew all things?

In the natural order, perfection comes before imperfection, as act precedes potentiality; for whatever is in potentiality is made actual only by something actual...

Q474: Whether man in his first state could be deceived?

In the opinion of some, deception may mean two things; namely, any slight surmise, in which one adheres to what is false, as though it were true, but without the assent of belief---or it may mean a firm belief...

OF THINGS PERTAINING TO THE FIRST MAN'S WILL---NAMELY, GRACE AND RIGHTEOUSNESS

Q475: Whether the first man was created in grace?

Some say that man was not created in grace; but that it was bestowed on him subsequently before sin: and many authorities of the Saints declare that man possessed grace in the state of innocence.

Q476: Whether passions existed in the soul of the first man?

The passions of the soul are in the sensual appetite, the object of which is good and evil...

Q477: Whether Adam had all the virtues?

In the state of innocence man in a certain sense possessed all the virtues; and this can be proved from what precedes...

Q478: Whether the actions of the first man were less meritorious than ours are?

Merit as regards degree may be gauged in two ways...

OF THE MASTERSHIP BELONGING TO MAN IN THE STATE OF INNOCENCE

Q479: Whether Adam in the state of innocence had mastership over the animals?

As above stated for his disobedience to God, man was punished by the disobedience of those creatures which should be subject to him...

Q480: Whether man had mastership over all other creatures?

Man in a certain sense contains all things; and so according as he is master of what is within himself, in the same way he can have mastership over other things...

Q481: Whether men were equal in the state of innocence?

We must needs admit that in the primitive state there would have been some inequality, at least as regards sex, because generation depends upon diversity of sex: and likewise as regards age; for some would have been born of others; nor would sexual union have been sterile.

Q482: Whether in the state of innocence man would have been master over man?

Mastership has a twofold meaning...

OF THE PRESERVATION OF THE INDIVIDUAL IN THE PRIMITIVE STATE

Q483: Whether in the state of innocence man would have been immortal?

A thing may be incorruptible in three ways...

Q484: Whether in the state of innocence man would have been passible?

"Passion" may be taken in two senses...

Q485: Whether in the state of innocence man had need of food?

In the state of innocence man had an animal life requiring food; but after the resurrection he will have a spiritual life needing no food...

Q486: Whether in the state of innocence man would have acquired immortality by the tree of life?

The tree of life in a certain degree was the cause of immortality, but not absolutely...

OF THE PRESERVATION OF THE SPECIES

Q487: Whether in the state of innocence generation existed?

In the state of innocence there would have been generation of offspring for the multiplication of the human race; otherwise man's sin would have been very necessary, for such a great blessing to be its result...

Q488: Whether in the state of innocence there would have been generation by coition?

Some of the earlier doctors, considering the nature of concupiscence as regards generation in our present state, concluded that in the state of innocence generation would not have been effected in the same way...

OF THE CONDITION OF THE OFFSPRING AS TO THE BODY

Q489: Whether in the state of innocence children would have had perfect strength of body as to the use of its members immediately after birth?

By faith alone do we hold truths which are above nature, and what we believe rests on authority...

Q490: Whether, in the primitive state, women would have been born?

Nothing belonging to the completeness of human nature would have been lacking in the state of innocence...

OF THE CONDITION OF THE OFFSPRING AS REGARDS RIGHTEOUSNESS

Q491: Whether men would have been born in a state of righteousness?

Man naturally begets a specific likeness to himself...

Q492: Whether in the state of innocence children would have been born confirmed in righteousness?

It does not seem possible that in the state of innocence children would have been born confirmed in righteousness...

OF THE CONDITION OF THE OFFSPRING AS REGARDS KNOWLEDGE

Q493: Whether in the state of innocence children would have been born with perfect knowledge?

As above stated, as regards belief in matters which are above nature, we rely on authority alone; and so, when authority is wanting, we must be guided by the ordinary course of nature...

Q494: Whether children would have had perfect use of reason at birth?

As above stated, the use of reason depends in a certain manner on the use of the sensitive powers; wherefore, while the senses are tired and the interior sensitive powers hampered, man has not the perfect use of reason, as we see in those who are asleep or delirious...

OF MAN'S ABODE, WHICH IS PARADISE

Q495: Whether paradise is a corporeal place?

As Augustine says : "Nothing prevents us from holding, within proper limits, a spiritual paradise; so long as we believe in the truth of the events narrated as having there occurred"...

Q496: Whether paradise was a place adapted to be the abode of man?

As above stated, Man was incorruptible and immortal, not because his body had a disposition to incorruptibility, but because in his soul there was a power preserving the body from corruption...

Q497: Whether man was placed in paradise to dress it and keep it?

As Augustine says, these words in Genesis may be understood in two ways...

Q498: Whether man was created in paradise?

Paradise was a fitting abode for man as regards the incorruptibility of the primitive state...

TREATISE ON THE CONSERVATION AND GOVERNMENT OF CREATURES

OF THE GOVERNMENT OF THINGS IN GENERAL

Q499: Whether the world is governed by anyone?

Certain ancient philosophers denied the government of the world, saying that all things happened by chance...

Q500: Whether the end of the government of the world is something outside the world?

As the end of a thing corresponds to its beginning, it is not possible to be ignorant of the end of things if we know their beginning...

Q501: Whether the world is governed by one?

We must of necessity say that the world is governed by one...

Q502: Whether the effect of government is one or many?

The effect of any action may be judged from its end; because it is by action that the attainment of the end is effected...

Q503: Whether all things are subject to the Divine government?

For the same reason is God the ruler of things as He is their cause, because the same gives existence as gives perfection; and this belongs to government...

Q504: Whether all things are immediately governed by God?

In government there are two things to be considered; the design of government, which is providence itself; and the execution of the design...

Q505: Whether anything can happen outside the order of the Divine government?

It is possible for an effect to result outside the order of some particular cause; but not outside the order of the universal cause...

Q506: Whether anything can resist the order of the Divine government?

We may consider the order of Divine providence in two ways: in general, inasmuch as it proceeds from the governing cause of all; and in particular, inasmuch as it proceeds from some particular cause which executes the order of the Divine government.

THE SPECIAL EFFECTS OF THE DIVINE GOVERNMENT

Q507: Whether creatures need to be kept in being by God?

Both reason and faith bind us to say that creatures are kept in being by God...

Q508: Whether God preserves every creature immediately?

As stated above, a thing keeps another in being in two ways; first, indirectly and accidentally, by removing or hindering the action of a corrupting cause; secondly, directly and "per se," by the fact that that on it depends the other's being, as the being of the effect depends on the cause...

Q509: Whether God can annihilate anything?

Some have held that God, in giving existence to creatures, acted from natural necessity...

Q510: Whether anything is annihilated?

Some of those things which God does in creatures occur in accordance with the natural course of things; others happen miraculously, and not in accordance with the natural order, as will be explained ...

OF THE CHANGE OF CREATURES BY GOD

Q511: Whether God can move the matter immediately to the form?

God can move matter immediately to form; because whatever is in passive potentiality can be reduced to act by the active power which extends over that potentiality...

Q512: Whether God can move a body immediately?

It is erroneous to say that God cannot Himself produce all the determinate effects which are produced by any created cause...

Q513: Whether God moves the created intellect immediately?

As in corporeal movement that is called the mover which gives the form that is the principle of movement, so that is said to move the intellect, which is the cause of the form that is the principle of the intellectual operation, called the movement of the intellect...

Q514: Whether God can move the created will?

As the intellect is moved by the object and by the Giver of the power of intelligence, as stated above, so is the will moved by its object, which is good, and by Him who creates the power of willing...

Q515: Whether God works in every agent?

Some have understood God to work in every agent in such a way that no created power has any effect in things, but that God alone is the ultimate cause of everything wrought; for instance, that it is not fire that gives heat, but God in the fire, and so forth...

Q516: Whether God can do anything outside the established order of nature?

From each cause there results a certain order to its effects, since every cause is a principle; and so, according to the multiplicity of causes, there results a multiplicity of orders, subjected one to the other, as cause is subjected to cause...

Q517: Whether whatever God does outside the natural order is miraculous?

The word miracle is derived from admiration, which arises when an effect is manifest, whereas its cause is hidden; as when a man sees an eclipse without knowing its cause, as the Philosopher says in the beginning of his Metaphysics...

Q518: Whether one miracle is greater than another?

Nothing is called a miracle by comparison with the Divine Power; because no action is of any account compared with the power of God, according to Is. 40:15: "Behold the Gentiles are as a drop from a bucket, and are counted as the smallest grain of a balance"...

HOW ONE CREATURE MOVES ANOTHER

Q519: Whether one angel enlightens another?

One angel enlightens another...

Q520: Whether one angel moves another angel's will?

As was said above, the will is changed in two ways; on the part of the object, and on the part of the power...

Q521: Whether an inferior angel can enlighten a superior angel?

The inferior angels never enlighten the superior, but are always enlightened by them...

Q522: Whether the superior angel enlightens the inferior as regards all he himself knows?

Every creature participates in the Divine goodness, so as to diffuse the good it possesses to others; for it is of the nature of good to communicate itself to others...

THE SPEECH OF THE ANGELS

Q523: Whether one angel speaks to another?

The angels speak in a certain way...

Q524: Whether the inferior angel speaks to the superior?

The inferior angels can speak to the superior...

Q525: Whether an angel speaks to God?

As was said above, the angel speaks by ordering his mental concept to something else...

Q526: Whether local distance influences the angelic speech?

The angelic speech consists in an intellectual operation, as explained above ...

Q527: Whether all the angels know what one speaks to another?

As above explained, the mental concept of one angel can be perceived by another when the angel who possesses the concept refers it by his will to another...

OF THE ANGELIC DEGREES OF HIERARCHIES AND ORDERS

Q528: Whether all the angels are of one hierarchy?

Hierarchy means a "sacred" principality, as above explained...

Q529: Whether there are several orders in one hierarchy?

As explained above, one hierarchy is one principality---that is, one multitude ordered in one way under the rule of a prince...

Q530: Whether there are many angels in one order?

Whoever knows anything perfectly, is able to distinguish its acts, powers, and nature, down to the minutest details, whereas he who knows a thing in an imperfect manner can only distinguish it in a general way, and only as regards a few points...

Q531: Whether the distinction of hierarchies and orders comes from the angelic nature?

The order of government, which is the order of a multitude under authority, is derived from its end...

Q532: Whether the orders of the angels are properly named?

As Dionysius says, in the names of the angelic orders it is necessary to observe that the proper name of each order expresses its property...

Q533: Whether the grades of the orders are properly assigned?

The grades of the angelic orders are assigned by Gregory and Dionysius, who agree as regards all except the "Principalities" and "Virtues"...

Q534: Whether the orders will outlast the Day of Judgment?

In the angelic orders we may consider two things; the distinction of grades, and the execution of their offices...

Q535: Whether men are taken up into the angelic orders?

As above explained, the orders of the angels are distinguished according to the conditions of nature and according to the gifts of grace...

THE ORDERING OF THE BAD ANGELS

Q536: Whether there are orders among the demons?

As explained above, order in the angels is considered both according to the grade of nature; and according to that of grace...

Q537: Whether among the demons there is precedence?

Since action follows the nature of a thing, where natures are subordinate, actions also must be subordinate to each other...

Q538: Whether there is enlightenment in the demons?

There can be no enlightenment properly speaking among the demons...

Q539: Whether the good angels have precedence over the bad angels?

The whole order of precedence is first and originally in God; and it is shared by creatures accordingly as they are the nearer to God...

HOW ANGELS ACT ON BODIES

Q540: Whether the corporeal creature is governed by the angels?

It is generally found both in human affairs and in natural things that every particular power is governed and ruled by the universal power; as, for example, the bailiff's power is governed by the power of the king...

Q541: Whether corporeal matter obeys the mere will of an angel?

The Platonists asserted that the forms which are in matter are caused by immaterial forms, because they said that the material forms are participations of immaterial forms...

Q542: Whether bodies obey the angels as regards local motion?

As Dionysius says : "Divine wisdom has joined the ends of the first to the principles of the second"...

Q543: Whether angels can work miracles?

A miracle properly so called is when something is done outside the order of nature...

THE ACTION OF THE ANGELS ON MAN

Q544: Whether an angel can enlighten man?

Since the order of Divine Providence disposes that lower things be subject to the actions of higher, as explained above ; as the inferior angels are enlightened by the superior, so men, who are inferior to the angels, are enlightened by them.

Q545: Whether the angels can change the will of man?

The will can be changed in two ways...

Q546: Whether an angel can change man's imagination?

Both a good and a bad angel by their own natural power can move the human imagination...

Q547: Whether an angel can change the human senses?

The senses may be changed in a twofold manner; from without, as when affected by the sensible object: and from within, for we see that the senses are changed when the spirits and humors are disturbed; as for example, a sick man's tongue, charged with choleric humor, tastes everything as bitter, and the like with the other senses...

THE MISSION OF THE ANGELS

Q548: Whether the angels are sent on works of ministry?

From what has been said above, it may be shown that some angels are sent in ministry by God...

Q549: Whether all the angels are sent in ministry?

As appears from what has been said above, the order of Divine Providence has so disposed not only among the angels, but also in the whole universe, that inferior things are administered by the superior...

Q550: Whether all the angels who are sent, assist?

The angels are spoken of as "assisting" and "administering," after the likeness of those who attend upon a king; some of whom ever wait upon him, and hear his commands immediately; while others there are to whom the royal commands are conveyed by those who are in attendance---for instance, those who are placed at the head of the administration of various cities; these are said to administer, not to assist.

Q551: Whether all the angels of the second hierarchy are sent?

As above stated, to be sent to external ministry properly belongs to an angel according as he acts by Divine command in respect of any corporeal creature; which is part of the execution of the Divine ministry...

OF THE GUARDIANSHIP OF THE GOOD ANGELS

Q552: Whether men are guarded by the angels?

According to the plan of Divine Providence, we find that in all things the movable and variable are moved and regulated by the immovable and invariable; as all corporeal things by immovable spiritual substances, and the inferior bodies by the superior which are invariable in substance...

Q553: Whether each man is guarded by an angel?

Each man has an angel guardian appointed to him...

Q554: Whether to guard men belongs only to the lowest order of angels?

As above stated, man is guarded in two ways; in one way by particular guardianship, according as to each man an angel is appointed to guard him; and such guardianship belongs to the lowest order of the angels, whose place it is, according to Gregory, to announce the "lesser things"; for it seems to be the least of the angelic offices to procure what concerns the salvation of only one man...

Q555: Whether angels are appointed to the guardianship of all men?

Man while in this state of life, is, as it were, on a road by which he should journey towards heaven...

Q556: Whether an angel is appointed to guard a man from his birth?

As Origen observes there are two opinions on this matter...

Q557: Whether the angel guardian ever forsakes a man?

As appears above, the guardianship of the angels is an effect of Divine providence in regard to man...

Q558: Whether angels grieve for the ills of those whom they guard?

Angels do not grieve, either for sins or for the pains inflicted on men...

Q559: Whether there can be strife or discord among the angels?

The raising of this question is occasioned by this passage of Daniel...

OF THE ASSAULTS OF THE DEMONS

Q560: Whether men are assailed by the demons?

Two things may be considered in the assault of the demons---the assault itself, and the ordering thereof...

Q561: Whether to tempt is proper to the devil?

To tempt is, properly speaking, to make trial of something...

Q562: Whether all sins are due to the temptation of the devil?

One thing can be the cause of another in two ways; directly and indirectly...

Q563: Whether demons can lead men astray by means of real miracles?

As is clear from what has been said above, if we take a miracle in the strict sense, the demons cannot work miracles, nor can any creature, but God alone: since in the strict sense a miracle is something done outside the order of the entire created nature, under which order every power of a creature is contained...

Q564: Whether a demon who is overcome by man, is for this reason hindered from making further assaults?

Some say that when once a demon has been overcome he can no more tempt any man at all, neither to the same nor to any other sin...

OF THE ACTION OF THE CORPOREAL CREATURE

Q565: Whether a body can be active?

It is apparent to the senses that some bodies are active...

Q566: Whether there are any seminal virtues in corporeal matter?

It is customary to name things after what is more perfect, as the Philosopher says ...

Q567: Whether the heavenly bodies are the cause of what is produced in bodies here below?

Since every multitude proceeds from unity; and since what is immovable is always in the same way of being, whereas what is moved has many ways of being: it must be observed that throughout the whole of nature, all movement proceeds from the immovable...

Q568: Whether the heavenly bodies are the cause of human actions?

The heavenly bodies can directly and of themselves act on bodies, as stated above ...

Q569: Whether heavenly bodies can act on the demons?

There have been three opinions about the demons...

Q570: Whether heavenly bodies impose necessity on things subject to their action?

This question is partly solved by what was said above ; and in part presents some difficulty...

ON FATE

Q571: Whether there be such a thing as fate?

In this world some things seem to happen by luck or chance...

Q572: Whether fate is in created things?

As is clear from what has been stated above, Divine Providence produces effects through mediate causes...

Q573: Whether fate is unchangeable?

The disposition of second causes which we call fate, can be considered in two ways: firstly, in regard to the second causes, which are thus disposed or ordered; secondly, in regard to the first principle, namely, God, by Whom they are ordered...

Q574: Whether all things are subject to fate?

As stated above, fate is the ordering of second causes to effects foreseen by God...

OF THINGS PERTAINING TO THE ACTION OF MAN

Q575: Whether one man can teach another?

On this question there have been various opinions...

Q576: Whether man can teach the angels?

Angels are never enlightened by men concerning Divine things...

Q577: Whether man by the power of his soul can change corporeal matter?

As stated above, corporeal matter is not changed to a form save either by some agent composed of matter and form, or by God Himself, in whom both matter and form pre-exist virtually, as in the primordial cause of both...

Q578: Whether the separate human soul can move bodies at least locally?

The separate soul cannot by its natural power move a body...

OF THE PRODUCTION OF MAN FROM MAN AS TO THE SOUL

Q579: Whether the sensitive soul is transmitted with the semen?

Some have held that the sensitive souls of animals are created by God ...

Q580: Whether the intellectual soul is produced from the semen?

It is impossible for an active power existing in matter to extend its action to the production of an immaterial effect...

Q581: Whether human souls were created together at the beginning of the world?

Some have maintained that it is accidental to the intellectual soul to be united to the body, asserting that the soul is of the same nature as those spiritual substances which are not united to a body...

OF THE PROPAGATION OF MAN AS TO THE BODY

Q582: Whether some part of the food is changed into true human nature?

According to the Philosopher, "The relation of a thing to truth is the same as its relation to being"...

Q583: Whether the semen is produced from surplus food?

This question depends in some way on what has been stated above ...

TREATISE ON THE LAST END

PROLOGUE OF MAN'S LAST END

Q584: Whether it belongs to man to act for an end?

Of actions done by man those alone are properly called "human," which are proper to man as man...

Q585: Whether it is proper to the rational nature to act for an end?

Every agent, of necessity, acts for an end...

Q586: Whether human acts are specified by their end?

Each thing receives its species in respect of an act and not in respect of potentiality; wherefore things composed of matter and form are established in their respective species by their own forms...

Q587: Whether there is one last end of human life?

Absolutely speaking, it is not possible to proceed indefinitely in the matter of ends, from any point of view...

Q588: Whether one man can have several last ends?

It is impossible for one man's will to be directed at the same time to diverse things, as last ends...

Q589: Whether man will all, whatsoever he wills, for the last end?

Man must, of necessity, desire all, whatsoever he desires, for the last end...

Q590: Whether all men have the same last end?

We can speak of the last end in two ways: first, considering only the aspect of last end; secondly, considering the thing in which the aspect of last end is realized...

Q591: Whether other creatures concur in that last end?

As the Philosopher says, the end is twofold---the end "for which" and the end "by which"; viz. the thing itself in which is found the aspect of good, and the use or acquisition of that thing...

OF THOSE THINGS IN WHICH MAN'S HAPPINESS CONSISTS

Q592: Whether man's happiness consists in wealth?

It is impossible for man's happiness to consist in wealth...

Q593: Whether man's happiness consists in honors?

It is impossible for happiness to consist in honor...

Q594: Whether man's happiness consists in fame or glory?

Man's happiness cannot consist in human fame or glory...

Q595: Whether man's happiness consists in power?

It is impossible for happiness to consist in power; and this for two reasons...

Q596: Whether man's happiness consists in any bodily good?

It is impossible for man's happiness to consist in the goods of the body; and this for two reasons...

Q597: Whether man's happiness consists in pleasure?

Because bodily delights are more generally known, "the name of pleasure has been appropriated to them", although other delights excel them: and yet happiness does not consist in them...

Q598: Whether some good of the soul constitutes man's happiness?

As stated above, the end is twofold: namely, the thing itself, which we desire to attain, and the use, namely, the attainment or possession of that thing...

Q599: Whether any created good constitutes man's happiness?

It is impossible for any created good to constitute man's happiness...

WHAT IS HAPPINESS

Q600: Whether happiness is something uncreated?

As stated above, our end is twofold...

Q601: Whether happiness is an operation?

In so far as man's happiness is something created, existing in him, we must needs say that it is an operation...

Q602: Whether happiness is an operation of the sensitive part, or of the intellective part only?

A thing may belong to happiness in three ways: essentially, antecedently, consequently...

Q603: Whether, if happiness is in the intellective part, it is an operation of the intellect or of the will?

As stated above two things are needed for happiness: one, which is the essence of happiness: the other, that is, as it were, its proper accident, i.e. the delight connected with it...

Q604: Whether happiness is an operation of the speculative, or of the practical intellect?

Happiness consists in an operation of the speculative rather than of the practical intellect...

Q605: Whether happiness consists in the consideration of speculative sciences?

As stated above, man's happiness is twofold, one perfect, the other imperfect...

Q606: Whether happiness consists in the knowledge of separate substances, namely, angels?

As stated above, man's perfect happiness consists not in that which perfects the intellect by some participation, but in that which is so by its essence...

Q607: Whether man's happiness consists in the vision of the divine essence?

Final and perfect happiness can consist in nothing else than the vision of the Divine Essence...

OF THOSE THINGS THAT ARE REQUIRED FOR HAPPINESS

Q608: Whether delight is required for happiness?

One thing may be necessary for another in four ways...

Q609: Whether in happiness vision ranks before delight?

The Philosopher discusses this question, and leaves it unsolved...

Q610: Whether comprehension is necessary for happiness?

Since Happiness consists in gaining the last end, those things that are required for Happiness must be gathered from the way in which man is ordered to an end...

Q611: Whether rectitude of the will is necessary for happiness?

Rectitude of will is necessary for Happiness both antecedently and concomitantly...

Q612: Whether the body is necessary for man's happiness?

Happiness is twofold; the one is imperfect and is had in this life; the other is perfect, consisting in the vision of God...

Q613: Whether perfection of the body is necessary for happiness?

If we speak of that happiness which man can acquire in this life, it is evident that a well-disposed body is of necessity required for it...

Q614: Whether any external goods are necessary for happiness?

For imperfect happiness, such as can be had in this life, external goods are necessary, not as belonging to the essence of happiness, but by serving as instruments to happiness, which consists in an operation of virtue, as stated in Ethic. i, 13...

Q615: Whether the fellowship of friend is necessary for happiness?

If we speak of the happiness of this life, the happy man needs friends, as the Philosopher says, not, indeed, to make use of them, since he suffices himself; nor to delight in them, since he possesses perfect delight in the operation of virtue; but for the purpose of a good operation, viz. that he may do good to them; that he may delight in seeing them do good; and again that he may be helped by them in his good work...

OF THE ATTAINMENT OF HAPPINESS

Q616: Whether man can attain happiness?

Happiness is the attainment of the Perfect Good...

Q617: Whether one man can be happier than another?

As stated above, Happiness implies two things, to wit, the last end itself, i.e. the Sovereign Good; and the attainment or enjoyment of that same Good...

Q618: Whether one can be happy in this life?

A certain participation of Happiness can be had in this life: but perfect and true Happiness cannot be had in this life...

Q619: Whether happiness once had can be lost?

If we speak of imperfect happiness, such as can be had in this life, in this sense it can be lost...

Q620: Whether man can attain happiness by his natural powers?

Imperfect happiness that can be had in this life, can be acquired by man by his natural powers, in the same way as virtue, in whose operation it consists: on this point we shall speak further on ...

Q621: Whether man attains happiness through the action of some higher creature?

Since every creature is subject to the laws of nature, from the very fact that its power and action are limited: that which surpasses created nature, cannot be done by the power of any creature...

Q622: Whether any good works are necessary that man may receive happiness from God?

Rectitude of the will, as stated above, is necessary for Happiness; since it is nothing else than the right order of the will to the last end; and it is therefore necessary for obtaining the end, just as the right disposition of matter, in order to receive the form...

Q623: Whether every man desires happiness?

Happiness can be considered in two ways...

TREATISE ON HUMAN ACTS: ACTS PECULIAR TO MAN

OF THE VOLUNTARY AND THE INVOLUNTARY

Q624: Whether there is anything voluntary in human acts?

There must needs be something voluntary in human acts...

Q625: Whether there is anything voluntary in irrational animals?

As stated above, it is essential to the voluntary act that its principle be within the agent, together with some knowledge of the end...

Q626: Whether there can be voluntariness without any act?

Voluntary is what proceeds from the will...

Q627: Whether violence can be done to the will?

The act of the will is twofold: one is its immediate act, as it were, elicited by it, namely, "to wish"; the other is an act of the will commanded by it, and put into execution by means of some other power, such as "to walk" and "to speak," which are commanded by the will to be executed by means of the motive power.

Q628: Whether violence causes involuntariness?

Violence is directly opposed to the voluntary, as likewise to the natural...

Q629: Whether fear causes involuntariness simply?

As the Philosopher says and likewise Gregory of Nyssa in his book on Man, such things are done through fear "are of a mixed character," being partly voluntary and partly involuntary...

Q630: Whether concupiscence causes involuntariness?

Concupiscence does not cause involuntariness, but on the contrary makes something to be voluntary...

Q631: Whether ignorance causes involuntariness?

If ignorance causes involuntariness, it is in so far as it deprives one of knowledge, which is a necessary condition of voluntariness, as was declared above ...

OF THE CIRCUMSTANCES OF HUMAN ACTS

Q632: Whether a circumstance is an accident of a human act?

Since, according to the Philosopher, "words are the signs of what we understand," it must needs be that in naming things we follow the process of intellectual knowledge...

Q633: Whether theologians should take note of the circumstances of human acts?

Circumstances come under the consideration of the theologian, for a threefold reason...

Q634: Whether the circumstances are properly set forth in the third book of Ethics?

Tully, in his Rhetoric, gives seven circumstances, which are contained in this verse:

Q635: Whether the most important circumstances are "why" and "in what the act consists"?

As stated above, acts are properly called human, inasmuch as they are voluntary...

OF THE WILL, IN REGARD TO WHAT IT WILLS

Q636: Whether the will is of good only?

The will is a rational appetite...

Q637: Whether volition is of the end only, or also of the means?

The word "voluntas" sometimes designates the power of the will, sometimes its act...

Q638: Whether the will is moved by the same act to the end and to the means?

Since the end is willed in itself, whereas the means, as such, are only willed for the end, it is evident that the will can be moved to the end, without being moved to the means; whereas it cannot be moved to the means, as such, unless it is moved to the end...

OF THAT WHICH MOVES THE WILL

Q639: Whether the will is moved by the intellect?

A thing requires to be moved by something in so far as it is in potentiality to several things; for that which is in potentiality needs to be reduced to act by something actual; and to do this is to move...

Q640: Whether the will is moved by the sensitive appetite?

As stated above, that which is apprehended as good and fitting, moves the will by way of object...

Q641: Whether the will moves itself?

As stated above, it belongs to the will to move the other powers, by reason of the end which is the will's object...

Q642: Whether the will is moved by an exterior principle?

As far as the will is moved by the object, it is evident that it can be moved by something exterior...

Q643: Whether the will is moved by a heavenly body?

It is evident that the will can be moved by the heavenly bodies in the same way as it is moved by its object; that is to say, in so far as exterior bodies, which move the will, through being offered to the senses, and also the organs themselves of the sensitive powers, are subject to the movements of the heavenly bodies.

Q644: Whether the will is moved by God alone, as exterior principle?

The movement of the will is from within, as also is the movement of nature...

OF THE MANNER IN WHICH THE WILL IS MOVED

Q645: Whether the will is moved to anything naturally?

As Boethius says and the Philosopher also the word "nature" is used in a manifold sense...

Q646: Whether the will is moved, of necessity, by its object?

The will is moved in two ways: first, as to the exercise of its act; secondly, as to the specification of its act, derived from the object...

Q647: Whether the will is moved, of necessity, by the lower appetite?

As stated above, the passion of the sensitive appetite moves the will, in so far as the will is moved by its object: inasmuch as, to wit, man through being disposed in such and such a way by a passion, judges something to be fitting and good, which he would not judge thus were it not for the passion...

Q648: Whether the will is moved of necessity by the exterior mover which is God?

As Dionysius says "it belongs to Divine providence, not to destroy but to preserve the nature of things"...

OF ENJOYMENT, WHICH IS AN ACT OF THE WILL

Q649: Whether to enjoy is an act of the appetitive power?

"Fruitio" and "fructus" seem to refer to the same, one being derived from the other; which from which, matters not for our purpose; though it seems probable that the one which is more clearly known, was first named...

Q650: Whether to enjoy belongs to the rational creature alone, or also to irrational animals?

As was stated above to enjoy is not the act of the power that achieves the end as executor, but of the power that commands the achievement; for it has been said to belong to the appetitive power...

Q651: Whether enjoyment is only of the last end?

As stated above the notion of fruit implies two things: first that it should come last; second, that it should calm the appetite with a certain sweetness and delight...

Q652: Whether enjoyment is only of the end possessed?

To enjoy implies a certain relation of the will to the last end, according as the will has something by way of last end...

OF INTENTION

Q653: Whether intention is an act of the intellect or of the will?

Intention, as the very word denotes, signifies, "to tend to something"...

Q654: Whether intention is only of the last end?

As stated above, intention regards the end as a terminus of the movement of the will...

Q655: Whether one can intend two things at the same time?

The expression "two things" may be taken in two ways: they may be ordained to one another or not so ordained...

Q656: Whether intention of the end is the same act as the volition of the means?

The movement of the will to the end and to the means can be considered in two ways...

Q657: Whether intention is within the competency of irrational animals?

As stated above, to intend is to tend to something; and this belongs to the mover and to the moved...

OF CHOICE, WHICH IS AN ACT OF THE WILL WITH REGARD TO THE MEANS

Q658: Whether choice is an act of will or of reason?

The word choice implies something belonging to the reason or intellect, and something belonging to the will: for the Philosopher says that choice is either "intellect influenced by appetite or appetite influenced by intellect"...

Q659: Whether choice is to be found in irrational animals?

Since choice is the taking of one thing in preference to another it must of necessity be in respect of several things that can be chosen...

Q660: Whether choice is only of the means, or sometimes also of the end?

As already stated, choice results from the decision or judgment which is, as it were, the conclusion of a practical syllogism...

Q661: Whether choice is of those things only that are done by us?

Just as intention regards the end, so does choice regard the means...

Q662: Whether choice is only of possible things?

As stated above, our choice is always concerned with our actions...

Q663: Whether man chooses of necessity or freely?

Man does not choose of necessity...

OF COUNSEL, WHICH PRECEDES CHOICE

Q664: Whether counsel is an inquiry?

Choice, as stated above, follows the judgment of the reason about what is to be done...

Q665: Whether counsel is of the end, or only of the means?

The end is the principle in practical matters: because the reason of the means is to be found in the end...

Q666: Whether counsel is only of things that we do?

Counsel properly implies a conference held between several; the very word denotes this, for it means a sitting together, from the fact that many sit together in order to confer with one another...

Q667: Whether counsel is about all things that we do?

Counsel is a kind of inquiry, as stated above ...

Q668: Whether the process of counsel is one of analysis?

In every inquiry one must begin from some principle...

Q669: Whether the process of counsel is indefinite?

The inquiry of counsel is actually finite on both sides, on that of its principle and on that of its term...

OF CONSENT, WHICH IS AN ACT OF THE WILL IN REGARD TO THE MEANS

Q670: Whether consent is an act of the appetitive or of the apprehensive power?

Consent implies application of sense to something...

Q671: Whether consent is to be found in irrational animals?

Consent, properly speaking, is not in irrational animals...

Q672: Whether consent is directed to the end or to the means?

Consent is the application of the appetitive movement to something that is already in the power of him who causes the application...

Q673: Whether consent to the act belongs only to the higher part of the soul?

The final decision belongs to him who holds the highest place, and to whom it belongs to judge of the others; for as long as judgment about some matter remains to be pronounced, the final decision has not been given...

OF USE, WHICH IS AN ACT OF THE WILL IN REGARD TO THE MEANS

Q674: Whether use is an act of the will?

The use of a thing implies the application of that thing to an operation: hence the operation to which we apply a thing is called its use; thus the use of a horse is to ride, and the use of a stick is to strike...

Q675: Whether use is to be found in irrational animals?

As stated above, to use is to apply an active principle to action: thus to consent is to apply the appetitive movement to the desire of something, as stated above ...

Q676: Whether use regards also the last end?

Use, as stated above, implies the application of one thing to another...

Q677: Whether use precedes choice?

The will has a twofold relation to the thing willed...

OF THE ACTS COMMANDED BY THE WILL

Q678: Whether command is an act of the reason or of the will?

Command is an act of the reason presupposing, however, an act of the will...

Q679: Whether command belongs to irrational animals?

To command is nothing else than to direct someone to do something, by a certain motion of intimation...

Q680: Whether use precedes command?

Use of that which is directed to the end, in so far as it is in the reason referring this to the end, precedes choice, as stated above ...

Q681: Whether command and the commanded act are one act, or distinct?

Nothing prevents certain things being distinct in one respect, and one in another respect...

Q682: Whether the act of the will is commanded?

As stated above, command is nothing else than the act of the reason directing, with a certain motion, something to act...

Q683: Whether the act of the reason is commanded?

Since the reason reacts on itself, just as it directs the acts of other powers, so can it direct its own act...

Q684: Whether the act of the sensitive appetite is commanded?

An act is subject to our command, in so far as it is in our power, as stated above ...

Q685: Whether the act of the vegetal soul is commanded?

Some acts proceed from the natural appetite, others from the animal, or from the intellectual appetite: for every agent desires an end in some way...

Q686: Whether the acts of the external members are commanded?

The members of the body are organs of the soul's powers...

OF THE GOOD AND EVIL OF HUMAN ACTS, IN GENERAL

Q687: Whether every human action is good, or are there evil actions?

We must speak of good and evil in actions as of good and evil in things: because such as everything is, such is the act that it produces...

Q688: Whether the good or evil of a man's action is derived from its object?

As stated above the good or evil of an action, as of other things, depends on its fulness of being or its lack of that fulness...

Q689: Whether man's action is good or evil from a circumstance?

In natural things, it is to be noted that the whole fulness of perfection due to a thing, is not from the mere substantial form, that gives it its species; since a thing derives much from supervening accidents, as man does from shape, color, and the like; and if any one of these accidents be out of due proportion, evil is the result...

Q690: Whether a human action is good or evil from its end?

The disposition of things as to goodness is the same as their disposition as to being...

Q691: Whether a human action is good or evil in its species?

Every action derives its species from its object, as stated above ...

Q692: Whether an action has the species of good or evil from its end?

Certain actions are called human, inasmuch as they are voluntary, as stated above ...

Q693: Whether the species derived from the end is contained under the species derived from the object, as under its genus, or conversely?

The object of the external act can stand in a twofold relation to the end of the will: first, as being of itself ordained thereto; thus to fight well is of itself ordained to victory; secondly, as being ordained thereto accidentally; thus to take what belongs to another is ordained accidentally to the giving of alms...

Q694: Whether any action is indifferent in its species?

As stated above, every action takes its species from its object; while human action, which is called moral, takes its species from the object, in relation to the principle of human actions, which is the reason...

Q695: Whether an individual action can be indifferent?

It sometimes happens that an action is indifferent in its species, but considered in the individual it is good or evil...

Q696: Whether a circumstance places a moral action in the species of good or evil?

Just as the species of natural things are constituted by their natural forms, so the species of moral actions are constituted by forms as conceived by the reason, as is evident from what was said above ...

Q697: Whether every circumstance that makes an action better or worse, places a moral action in a species of good or evil?

As stated above, a circumstance gives the species of good or evil to a moral action, in so far as it regards a special order of reason...

OF THE GOODNESS AND MALICE OF THE INTERIOR ACT OF THE WILL

Q698: Whether the goodness of the will depends on the object?

Good and evil are essential differences of the act of the will...

Q699: Whether the goodness of the will depends on the object alone?

In every genus, the more a thing is first, the more simple it is, and the fewer the principles of which it consists: thus primary bodies are simple...

Q700: Whether the goodness of the will depends on reason?

As stated above, the goodness of the will depends properly on the object...

Q701: Whether the goodness of the will depends on the eternal law?

Wherever a number of causes are subordinate to one another, the effect depends more on the first than on the second cause: since the second cause acts only in virtue of the first...

Q702: Whether the will is evil when it is at variance with erring reason?

Since conscience is a kind of dictate of the reason, to inquire whether the will is evil when it is at variance with erring reason, is the same as to inquire "whether an erring conscience binds"...

Q703: Whether the will is good when it abides by erring reason?

Whereas the previous question is the same as inquiring "whether an erring conscience binds"; so this question is the same as inquiring "whether an erring conscience excuses"...

Q704: Whether the goodness of the will, as regards the means, depends on the intention of the end?

The intention may stand in a twofold relation to the act of the will; first, as preceding it, secondly as following it...

Q705: Whether the degree of goodness or malice in the will depends on the degree of good or evil in the intention?

In regard to both the act, and the intention of the end, we may consider a twofold quantity: one, on the part of the object, by reason of a man willing or doing a good that is greater; the other, taken from the intensity of the act, according as a man wills or acts intensely; and this is more on the part of the agent.

Q706: Whether the goodness of the will depends on its conformity to the Divine will?

As stated above, the goodness of the will depends on the intention of the end...

Q707: Whether it is necessary for the human will, in order to be good, to be conformed to the Divine will, as regards the thing willed?

As is evident from what has been said above, the will tends to its object, according as it is proposed by the reason...

OF GOODNESS AND MALICE IN EXTERNAL HUMAN AFFAIRS

Q708: Whether goodness or malice is first in the action of the will, or in the external action?

External actions may be said to be good or bad in two ways...

Q709: Whether the whole goodness and malice of the external action depends on the goodness of the will?

As stated above, we may consider a twofold goodness or malice in the external action: one in respect of due matter and circumstances; the other in respect of the order to the end...

Q710: Whether the goodness and malice of the external action are the same as those of the interior act?

As stated above, the interior act of the will, and the external action, considered morally, are one act...

Q711: Whether the external action adds any goodness or malice to that of the interior act?

If we speak of the goodness which the external action derives from the will tending to the end, then the external action adds nothing to this goodness, unless it happens that the will in itself is made better in good things, or worse in evil things...

Q712: Whether the consequences of the external action increase its goodness or malice?

The consequences of an action are either foreseen or not...

Q713: Whether one and the same external action can be both good and evil?

Nothing hinders a thing from being one, in so far as it is in one genus, and manifold, in so far as it is referred to another genus...

OF THE CONSEQUENCES OF HUMAN ACTIONS BY REASON OF THEIR GOODNESS AND MALICE

Q714: Whether a human action is right or sinful, in so far as it is good or evil?

Evil is more comprehensive than sin, as also is good than right...

Q715: Whether a human action deserves praise or blame, by reason of its being good or evil?

Just as evil is more comprehensive than sin, so is sin more comprehensive than blame...

Q716: Whether a human action is meritorious or demeritorious in so far as it is good or evil?

We speak of merit and demerit, in relation to retribution, rendered according to justice...

Q717: Whether a human action is meritorious or demeritorious before God, according as it is good or evil?

A human action, as stated above, acquires merit or demerit, through being ordained to someone else, either by reason of himself, or by reason of the community: and in each way, our actions, good and evil, acquire merit or demerit, in the sight of God...

TREATISE ON THE PASSIONS

OF THE SUBJECT OF THE SOUL'S PASSIONS

Q718: Whether any passion is in the soul?

The word "passive" is used in three ways...

Q719: Whether passion is in the appetitive rather than in the apprehensive part?

As we have already stated the word "passion" implies that the patient is drawn to that which belongs to the agent...

Q720: Whether passion is in the sensitive appetite rather than in the intellectual appetite, which is called the will?

As stated above passion is properly to be found where there is corporeal transmutation...

HOW THE PASSIONS DIFFER FROM ONE ANOTHER

Q721: Whether the passions of the concupiscible part are different from those of the irascible part?

The passions of the irascible part differ in species from those of the concupiscible faculty...

Q722: Whether the contrariety of the irascible passions is based on the contrariety of good and evil?

Passion is a kind of movement, as stated in Phys. iii, 3...

Q723: Whether any passion of the soul has no contrariety?

The passion of anger is peculiar in this, that it cannot have a contrary, either according to approach and withdrawal, or according to the contrariety of good and evil...

Q724: Whether in the same power, there are any passions, specifically different, but not contrary to one another?

Passions differ in accordance with their active causes, which, in the case of the passions of the soul, are their objects...

OF GOOD AND EVIL IN THE PASSIONS OF THE SOUL

Q725: Whether moral good and evil can be found in the passions of the soul?

We may consider the passions of the soul in two ways: first, in themselves; secondly, as being subject to the command of the reason and will...

Q726: Whether every passion of the soul is evil morally?

On this question the opinion of the Stoics differed from that of the Peripatetics: for the Stoics held that all passions are evil, while the Peripatetics maintained that moderate passions are good...

Q727: Whether passion increases or decreases the goodness or malice of an act?

As the Stoics held that every passion of the soul is evil, they consequently held that every passion of the soul lessens the goodness of an act; since the admixture of evil either destroys good altogether, or makes it to be less good...

Q728: Whether any passion is good or evil in its species?

We ought, seemingly, to apply to passions what has been said in regard to acts ---viz. that the species of a passion, as the species of an act, can be considered from two points of view...

OF THE ORDER OF THE PASSIONS TO ONE ANOTHER

Q729: Whether the irascible passions precede the concupiscible passions, or vice versa?

In the concupiscible passions there is more diversity than in the passions of the irascible faculty...

Q730: Whether love is the first of the concupiscible passions?

Good and evil are the object of the concupiscible faculty...

Q731: Whether hope is the first of the irascible passions?

As stated above all irascible passions imply movement towards something...

Q732: Whether these are the four principal passions: joy, sadness, hope and fear?

These four are commonly called the principal passions...

OF THE PASSIONS OF THE SOUL IN PARTICULAR: AND FIRST, OF LOVE

Q733: Whether love is in the concupiscible power?

Love is something pertaining to the appetite; since good is the object of both...

Q734: Whether love is a passion?

Passion is the effect of the agent on the patient...

Q735: Whether love is the same as dilection?

We find four words referring in a way, to the same thing: viz. love, dilection, charity and friendship...

Q736: Whether love is properly divided into love of friendship and love of concupiscence?

As the Philosopher says, "to love is to wish good to someone"...

OF THE CAUSE OF LOVE

Q737: Whether good is the only cause of love?

As stated above, Love belongs to the appetitive power which is a passive faculty...

Q738: Whether knowledge is a cause of love?

As stated above, good is the cause of love, as being its object...

Q739: Whether likeness is a cause of love?

Likeness, properly speaking, is a cause of love...

Q740: Whether any other passion of the soul is a cause of love?

There is no other passion of the soul that does not presuppose love of some kind...

OF THE EFFECTS OF LOVE

Q741: Whether union is an effect of love?

The union of lover and beloved is twofold...

Q742: Whether mutual indwelling is an effect of love?

This effect of mutual indwelling may be understood as referring both to the apprehensive and to the appetitive power...

Q743: Whether ecstasy is an effect of love?

To suffer ecstasy means to be placed outside oneself...

Q744: Whether zeal is an effect of love?

Zeal, whatever way we take it, arises from the intensity of love...

Q745: Whether love is a passion that wounds the lover?

As stated above, love denotes a certain adapting of the appetitive power to some good...

Q746: Whether love is cause of all that the lover does?

Every agent acts for an end, as stated above ...

OF HATRED

Q747: Whether evil is the cause and object of hatred?

Since the natural appetite is the result of apprehension, it seems that what applies to the inclination of the natural appetite, applies also to the animal appetite, which does result from an apprehension in the same subject, as stated above ...

Q748: Whether love is a cause of hatred?

As stated above, love consists in a certain agreement of the lover with the object loved, while hatred consists in a certain disagreement or dissonance...

Q749: Whether hatred is stronger than love?

It is impossible for an effect to be stronger than its cause...

Q750: Whether a man can hate himself?

Properly speaking, it is impossible for a man to hate himself...

Q751: Whether a man can hate the truth?

Good, true and being are the same in reality, but differ as considered by reason...

Q752: Whether anything can be an object of universal hatred?

There are two ways of speaking of the universal: first, as considered under the aspect of universality; secondly, as considered in the nature to which it is ascribed: for it is one thing to consider the universal man, and another to consider a man as man...

OF CONCUPISCENCE

Q753: Whether concupiscence is in the sensitive appetite only?

As the Philosopher says, "concupiscence is a craving for that which is pleasant"...

Q754: Whether concupiscence is a specific passion?

As stated above, the good which gives pleasure to the senses is the common object of the concupiscible faculty...

Q755: Whether some concupiscences are natural, and some not natural?

As stated above, concupiscence is the craving for pleasurable good...

Q756: Whether concupiscence is infinite?

As stated above, concupiscence is twofold; one is natural, the other is not natural...

OF DELIGHT CONSIDERED IN ITSELF

Q757: Whether delight is a passion?

The movements of the sensitive appetite, are properly called passions, as stated above ...

Q758: Whether delight is in time?

A thing may be in time in two ways: first, by itself; secondly, by reason of something else, and accidentally as it were...

Q759: Whether delight differs from joy?

Joy, as Avicenna states, is a kind of delight...

Q760: Whether delight is in the intellectual appetite?

As stated above, a certain delight arises from the apprehension of the reason...

Q761: Whether bodily and sensible pleasures are greater than spiritual and intellectual pleasures?

As stated above, pleasure arises from union with a suitable object perceived or known...

Q762: Whether the pleasures of touch are greater than the pleasures afforded by the other senses?

As stated above, everything gives pleasure according as it is loved...

Q763: Whether any pleasure is not natural?

We speak of that as being natural, which is in accord with nature, as stated in Phys. ii, 1...

Q764: Whether one pleasure can be contrary to another?

Pleasure, in the emotions of the soul, is likened to repose in natural bodies, as stated above ...

OF THE CAUSE OF PLEASURE

Q765: Whether operation is the proper cause of pleasure?

As stated above, two things are requisite for pleasure: namely, the attainment of the suitable good, and knowledge of this attainment...

Q766: Whether movement is a cause of pleasure?

Three things are requisite for pleasure; two, i.e. the one that is pleased and the pleasurable object conjoined to him; and a third, which is knowledge of this conjunction: and in respect of these three, movement is pleasant, as the Philosopher says ...

Q767: Whether hope and memory causes pleasure?

Pleasure is caused by the presence of suitable good, in so far as it is felt, or perceived in any way...

Q768: Whether sadness causes pleasure?

Sadness may be considered in two ways: as existing actually, and as existing in the memory: and in both ways sadness can cause pleasure...

Q769: Whether the actions of others are a cause of pleasure to us?

As stated above, two things are requisite for pleasure, namely, the attainment of one's proper good, and the knowledge of having obtained it...

Q770: Whether doing good to another is a cause of pleasure?

Doing good to another may give pleasure in three ways...

Q771: Whether likeness is a cause of pleasure?

Likeness is a kind of unity; hence that which is like us, as being one with us, causes pleasure; just at it causes love, as stated above ...

Q772: Whether wonder is a cause of pleasure?

It is pleasant to get what one desires, as stated above : and therefore the greater the desire for the thing loved, the greater the pleasure when it is attained: indeed the very increase of desire brings with it an increase of pleasure, according as it gives rise to the hope of obtaining that which is loved, since it was stated above that desire resulting from hope is a cause of pleasure...

OF THE EFFECTS OF PLEASURE

Q773: Whether expansion is an effect of pleasure?

Breadth is a dimension of bodily magnitude: hence it is not applied to the emotions of the soul, save metaphorically...

Q774: Whether pleasure causes thirst or desire for itself?

Pleasure can be considered in two ways; first, as existing in reality; secondly, as existing in the memory...

Q775: Whether pleasure hinders the use of reason?

As is stated in Ethic. x, 5, "appropriate pleasures increase activity . . . whereas pleasures arising from other sources are impediments to activity"...

Q776: Whether pleasure perfects operation?

Pleasure perfects operation in two ways...

OF THE GOODNESS AND MALICE OF PLEASURES

Q777: Whether every pleasure is evil?

As stated in Ethic. x, 2,some have maintained that all pleasure is evil...

Q778: Whether every pleasure is good?

While some of the Stoics maintained that all pleasures are evil, the Epicureans held that pleasure is good in itself, and that consequently all pleasures are good...

Q779: Whether any pleasure is the greatest good?

Plato held neither with the Stoics, who asserted that all pleasures are evil, nor with the Epicureans, who maintained that all pleasures are good; but he said that some are good, and some evil; yet, so that no pleasure be the sovereign or greatest good...

Q780: Whether pleasure is the measure or rule by which to judge of moral good or evil?

Moral goodness or malice depends chiefly on the will, as stated above ; and it is chiefly from the end that we discern whether the will is good or evil...

OF PAIN OR SORROW, IN ITSELF

Q781: Whether pain is a passion of the soul?

Just as two things are requisite for pleasure; namely, conjunction with good and perception of this conjunction; so also two things are requisite for pain: namely, conjunction with some evil, and perception of this conjunction...

Q782: Whether sorrow is the same as pain?

Pleasure and pain can arise from a twofold apprehension, namely, from the apprehension of an exterior sense; and from the interior apprehension of the intellect or of the imagination...

Q783: Whether sorrow or pain is contrary to pleasure?

As the Philosopher says, contrariety is a difference in respect of a form...

Q784: Whether all sorrow is contrary to all pleasure?

As stated in Metaph. x, 4 contrariety is a difference in respect of a form...

Q785: Whether there is any sorrow contrary to the pleasure of contemplation?

The pleasure of contemplation can be understood in two ways...

Q786: Whether sorrow is to be shunned more than pleasure is to be sought?

The desire for pleasure is of itself more eager than the shunning of sorrow...

Q787: Whether outward pain is greater than interior sorrow?

Interior and exterior pain agree in one point and differ in two...

Q788: Whether there are only four species of sorrow?

It belongs to the notion of a species that it is something added to the genus...

OF THE CAUSES OF SORROW OR PAIN

Q789: Whether sorrow is caused by the loss of good or by the presence of evil?

If privations, as considered by the mind, were what they are in reality, this question would seem to be of no importance...

Q790: Whether desire is a cause of sorrow?

Sorrow is a movement of the animal appetite...

Q791: Whether the craving for unity is a cause of sorrow?

Forasmuch as the desire or craving for good is reckoned as a cause of sorrow, so must a craving for unity, and love, be accounted as causing sorrow...

Q792: Whether an irresistible power is a cause of sorrow?

As stated above, a present evil, is cause of sorrow or pain, by way of object...

OF THE EFFECTS OF PAIN OR SORROW

Q793: Whether pain deprives one of the power to learn?

Since all the powers of the soul are rooted in the one essence of the soul, it must needs happen, when the intention of the soul is strongly drawn towards the action of one power, that it is withdrawn from the action of another power: because the soul, being one, can only have one intention...

Q794: Whether the effect of sorrow or pain is to burden the soul?

The effects of the soul's passions are sometimes named metaphorically, from a likeness to sensible bodies: for the reason that the movements of the animal appetite are like the inclinations of the natural appetite...

Q795: Whether sorrow or pain weakens all activity?

As stated above, sorrow at times does not depress or consume the soul, so as to shut out all movement, internal or external; but certain movements are sometimes caused by sorrow itself...

Q796: Whether sorrow is more harmful to the body than the other passions of the soul?

Of all the soul's passions, sorrow is most harmful to the body...

OF THE REMEDIES OF SORROW OR PAIN

Q797: Whether pain or sorrow is assuaged by every pleasure?

As is evident from what has been said above, pleasure is a kind of repose of the appetite in a suitable good; while sorrow arises from something unsuited to the appetite...

Q798: Whether pain or sorrow is assuaged by tears?

Tears and groans naturally assuage sorrow: and this for two reasons...

Q799: Whether pain or sorrow are assuaged by the sympathy of friends?

When one is in pain, it is natural that the sympathy of a friend should afford consolation: whereof the Philosopher indicates a twofold reason ...

Q800: Whether pain and sorrow are assuaged by the contemplation of truth?

As stated above, the greatest of all pleasures consists in the contemplation of truth...

Q801: Whether pain and sorrow are assuaged by sleep and baths?

As stated above, sorrow, by reason of its specific nature, is repugnant to the vital movement of the body; and consequently whatever restores the bodily nature to its due state of vital movement, is opposed to sorrow and assuages it...

OF THE GOODNESS AND MALICE OF SORROW OR PAIN

Q802: Whether all sorrow is evil?

A thing may be good or evil in two ways: first considered simply and in itself; and thus all sorrow is an evil, because the mere fact of a man's appetite being uneasy about a present evil, is itself an evil, because it hinders the response of the appetite in good...

Q803: Whether sorrow can be a virtuous good?

In so far as sorrow is good, it can be a virtuous good...

Q804: Whether sorrow can be a useful good?

A twofold movement of the appetite ensues from a present evil...

Q805: Whether bodily pain is the greatest evil?

It is impossible for any sorrow or pain to be man's greatest evil...

OF THE IRASCIBLE PASSIONS, AND FIRST, OF HOPE AND DESPAIR

Q806: Whether hope is the same as desire of cupidity?

The species of a passion is taken from the object...

Q807: Whether hope is in the apprehensive or in the appetitive power?

Since hope denotes a certain stretching out of the appetite towards good, it evidently belongs to the appetitive power; since movement towards things belongs properly to the appetite: whereas the action of the cognitive power is accomplished not by the movement of the knower towards things, but rather according as the things known are in the knower...

Q808: Whether hope is in dumb animals?

The internal passions of animals can be gathered from their outward movements: from which it is clear that hope is in dumb animals...

Q809: Whether despair is contrary to hope?

As stated above, there is a twofold contrariety of movements...

Q810: Whether experience is a cause of hope?

As stated above, the object of hope is a future good, difficult but possible to obtain...

Q811: Whether hope abounds in young men and drunkards?

Youth is a cause of hope for three reasons, as the Philosopher states in Rhet. ii, 12: and these three reasons may be gathered from the three conditions of the good which is the object of hope---namely, that it is future, arduous and possible, as stated above ...

Q812: Whether hope is a cause of love?

Hope can regard two things...

Q813: Whether hope is a help or a hindrance to action?

Hope of its very nature is a help to action by making it more intense: and this for two reasons...

OF FEAR, IN ITSELF

Q814: Whether fear is a passion of the soul?

Among the other passions of the soul, after sorrow, fear chiefly has the character of passion...

Q815: Whether fear is a special passion?

The passions of the soul derive their species from their objects: hence that is a special passion, which has a special object...

Q816: Whether there is a natural fear?

A movement is said to be natural, because nature inclines thereto...

Q817: Whether the species of fear is suitably assigned?

As stated above, fear regards a future evil which surpasses the power of him that fears, so that it is irresistible...

OF THE OBJECT OF FEAR

Q818: Whether the object of fear is good or evil?

Fear is a movement of the appetitive power...

Q819: Whether evil of nature is an object of fear?

As the Philosopher says, fear is caused by the "imagination of a future evil which is either corruptive or painful"...

Q820: Whether the evil of sin is an object of fear?

As stated above, as the object of hope is a future good difficult but possible to obtain, so the object of fear is a future evil, arduous and not to be easily avoided...

Q821: Whether fear itself can be feared?

As stated above, nothing can be an object of fear, save what is due to an extrinsic cause; but not that which ensues from our own will...

Q822: Whether sudden things are especially feared?

As stated about, the object of fear is an imminent evil, which can be repelled, but with difficulty...

Q823: Whether those things are more feared, for which there is no remedy?

The object of fear is evil: consequently whatever tends to increase evil, conduces to the increase of fear...

OF THE CAUSE OF FEAR

Q824: Whether love is the cause of fear?

The objects of the soul's passions stand in relation thereto as the forms to things natural or artificial: because the passions of the soul take their species from their objects, as the aforesaid things do from their forms...

Q825: Whether defect is the cause of fear?

As stated above, fear may be set down to a twofold cause: one is by way of a material disposition, on the part of him that fears; the other is by way of efficient cause, on the part of the person feared...

OF THE EFFECTS OF FEAR

Q826: Whether fear causes contraction?

As stated above, in the passions of the soul, the formal element is the movement of the appetitive power, while the bodily transmutation is the material element...

Q827: Whether fear makes one suitable for counsel?

A man of counsel may be taken in two ways...

Q828: Whether fear makes one tremble?

As stated above, in fear there takes place a certain contraction from the outward to the inner parts of the body, the result being that the outer parts become cold; and for this reason trembling is occasioned in these parts, being caused by a lack of power in controlling the members: which lack of power is due to the want of heat, which is the instrument whereby the soul moves those members, as stated in De Anima ii, 4.

Q829: Whether fear hinders action?

Man's exterior actions are caused by the soul as first mover, but by the bodily members as instruments...

OF DARING

Q830: Whether daring is contrary to fear?

It is of the essence of contraries to be "farthest removed from one another," as stated in Metaph. x, 4...

Q831: Whether daring ensues from hope?

As we have often stated, all these passions belong to the appetitive power...

Q832: Whether some defect is a cause of daring?

As stated above daring results from hope and is contrary to fear: wherefore whatever is naturally apt to cause hope or banish fear, is a cause of daring...

Q833: Whether the brave are more eager at first than in the midst of danger?

Daring, being a movement of the sensitive appetite, follows an apprehension of the sensitive faculty...

OF ANGER, IN ITSELF

Q834: Whether anger is a special passion?

A thing is said to be general in two ways...

Q835: Whether the object of anger is good or evil?

The movement of the appetitive power follows an act of the apprehensive power...

Q836: Whether anger is in the concupiscible faculty?

As stated above, the passions of the irascible part differ from the passions of the concupiscible faculty, in that the objects of the concupiscible passions are good and evil absolutely considered, whereas the objects of the irascible passions are good and evil in a certain elevation or arduousness...

Q837: Whether anger requires an act of reason?

As stated above, anger is a desire for vengeance...

Q838: Whether anger is more natural than desire?

By "natural" we mean that which is caused by nature, as stated in Phys. ii, 1...

Q839: Whether anger is more grievous than hatred?

The species and nature of a passion are taken from its object...

Q840: Whether anger is only towards those to whom one has an obligation of justice?

As stated above, anger desires evil as being a means of just vengeance...

Q841: Whether the species of anger are suitably assigned?

The species of anger given by Damascene and Gregory of Nyssa are taken from those things which give increase to anger...

OF THE CAUSE THAT PROVOKES ANGER, AND OF THE REMEDIES OF ANGER .

Q842: Whether the motive of anger is always something done against the one who is angry?

As stated above, anger is the desire to hurt another for the purpose of just vengeance...

Q843: Whether the sole motive of anger is slight or contempt?

All the causes of anger are reduced to slight...

Q844: Whether a man's excellence is the cause of his being angry?

The cause of anger, in the man who is angry, may be taken in two ways...

Q845: Whether a person's defect is a reason for being more easily angry with him?

As stated above unmerited contempt more than anything else is a provocative of anger...

OF THE EFFECTS OF ANGER

Q846: Whether anger causes pleasure?

As the Philosopher says, pleasures, chiefly sensible and bodily pleasures, are remedies against sorrow: and therefore the greater the sorrow or anxiety, the more sensible are we to the pleasure which heals it, as is evident in the case of thirst which increases the pleasure of drink...

Q847: Whether anger above all causes fervor in the heart?

As stated above, the bodily transmutation that occurs in the passions of the soul is proportionate to the movement of the appetite...

Q848: Whether anger above all hinders the use of reason?

Although the mind or reason makes no use of a bodily organ in its proper act, yet, since it needs certain sensitive powers for the execution of its act, the acts of which powers are hindered when the body is disturbed, it follows of necessity that any disturbance in the body hinders even the judgment of reason; as is clear in the case of drunkenness or sleep...

Q849: Whether anger above all causes taciturnity?

As stated above, anger both follows an act of reason, and hinders the reason: and in both respects it may cause taciturnity...

TREATISE ON HABITS

OF HABITS IN GENERAL, AS TO THEIR SUBSTANCE

Q850: Whether habit is a quality?

This word "habitus" is derived from "habere" ...

Q851: Whether habit is a distinct species of quality?

The Philosopher in the Book of Predicaments reckons disposition and habit as the first species of quality...

Q852: Whether habit implies order to an act?

To have relation to an act may belong to habit, both in regard to the nature of habit, and in regard to the subject in which the habit is...

Q853: Whether habits are necessary?

As we have said above, habit implies a disposition in relation to a thing's nature, and to its operation or end, by reason of which disposition a thing is well or ill disposed thereto...

OF THE SUBJECT OF HABITS

Q854: Whether there is a habit in the body?

As we have said above, habit is a disposition of a subject which is in a state of potentiality either to form or to operation...

Q855: Whether the soul is the subject of habit in respect of its essence or in respect of its power?

As we have said above, habit implies a certain disposition in relation to nature or to operation...

Q856: Whether there can be any habits in the powers of the sensitive parts?

The sensitive powers can be considered in two ways: first, according as they act from natural instinct: secondly, according as they act at the command of reason...

Q857: Whether there is any habit in the intellect?

Concerning intellective habits there have been various opinions...

Q858: Whether any habit is in the will?

Every power which may be variously directed to act, needs a habit whereby it is well disposed to its act...

Q859: Whether there are habits in the angels?

Some have thought that there are no habits in the angels, and that whatever is said of them, is said essentially...

OF THE CAUSE OF HABITS, AS TO THEIR FORMATION

Q860: Whether any habit is from nature?

One thing can be natural to another in two ways...

Q861: Whether any habit is caused by acts?

In the agent there is sometimes only the active principle of its act: for instance in fire there is only the active principle of heating...

Q862: Whether a habit can be caused by one act?

As we have said already, habit is caused by act, because a passive power is moved by an active principle...

Q863: Whether any habits are infused in man by God?

Some habits are infused by God into man, for two reasons.

OF THE INCREASE OF HABITS

Q864: Whether habits increase?

Increase, like other things pertaining to quantity, is transferred from bodily quantities to intelligible spiritual things, on account of the natural connection of the intellect with corporeal things, which come under the imagination...

Q865: Whether habits increases by addition?

The solution of this question depends on what we have said above ...

Q866: Whether every act increases its habit?

"Like acts cause like habits" ...

HOW HABITS ARE CORRUPTED OR DIMINISHED

Q867: Whether a habit can be corrupted?

A form is said to be corrupted directly by its contrary; indirectly, through its subject being corrupted...

Q868: Whether a habit can diminish?

Habits diminish, just as they increase, in two ways, as we have already explained ...

Q869: Whether a habit is corrupted or diminished through mere cessation from act?

As stated in Phys. vii, text. 27, a thing is a cause of movement in two ways...

OF THE DISTINCTION OF HABITS

Q870: Whether many habits can be in one power?

As stated above, habits are dispositions of a thing that is in potentiality to something, either to nature, or to operation, which is the end of nature...

Q871: Whether habits are distinguished by their objects?

A habit is both a form and a habit...

Q872: Whether habits are divided into good and bad?

As stated above, habits are specifically distinct not only in respect of their objects and active principles, but also in their relation to nature...

Q873: Whether one habit is made up of many habits?

A habit directed to operation, such as we are chiefly concerned with at present, is a perfection of a power...

TREATISE ON HABITS IN PARTICULAR GOOD HABITS, i.e. VIRTUES

OF THE VIRTUES, AS TO THEIR ESSENCE

Q874: Whether human virtue is a habit?

Virtue denotes a certain perfection of a power...

Q875: Whether human virtue is an operative habit?

Virtue, from the very nature of the word, implies some perfection of power, as we have said above ...

Q876: Whether human virtue is a good habit?

As we have said above, virtue implies a perfection of power: wherefore the virtue of a thing is fixed by the limit of its power ...

Q877: Whether virtue is suitably defined?

This definition comprises perfectly the whole essential notion of virtue...

OF THE SUBJECT OF VIRTUE

Q878: Whether the subject of virtue is a power of the soul?

It can be proved in three ways that virtue belongs to a power of the soul...

Q879: Whether one virtue can be in several powers?

It happens in two ways that one thing is subjected in two...

Q880: Whether the intellect can be the subject of virtue?

As we have said above, a virtue is a habit by which we work well...

Q881: Whether the irascible and concupiscible powers are the subject of virtue?

The irascible and concupiscible powers can be considered in two ways...

Q882: Whether the sensitive powers of apprehension are the subject of virtue?

In the interior sensitive powers of apprehension there are some habits...

Q883: Whether the will can be the subject of virtue?

Since the habit perfects the power in reference to act, then does the power need a habit perfecting it unto doing well, which habit is a virtue, when the power's own proper nature does not suffice for the purpose.

OF THE INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES

Q884: Whether the habits of the speculative intellect are virtues?

Since every virtue is ordained to some good, as stated above, a habit, as we have already observed, may be called a virtue for two reasons: first, because it confers aptness in doing good; secondly, because besides aptness, it confers the right use of it...

Q885: Whether there are only three habits of the speculative intellect, viz. wisdom, science and understanding?

As already stated, the virtues of the speculative intellect are those which perfect the speculative intellect for the consideration of truth: for this is its good work...

Q886: Whether the intellectual habit, art, is a virtue?

Art is nothing else but "the right reason about certain works to be made"...

Q887: Whether prudence is a distinct virtue from art?

Where the nature of virtue differs, there is a different kind of virtue...

Q888: Whether prudence is a virtue necessary to man?

Prudence is a virtue most necessary for human life...

Q889: Whether "eubulia, synesis, and gnome" are virtues annexed to prudence?

Wherever several powers are subordinate to one another, that power is the highest which is ordained to the highest act...

OF THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MORAL AND INTELLECTUAL VIRTUES

Q890: Whether every virtue is a moral virtue?

In order to answer this question clearly, we must consider the meaning of the Latin word "mos"; for thus we shall be able to discover what a "moral" virtue is...

Q891: Whether moral virtue differs from intellectual virtue?

Reason is the first principle of all human acts; and whatever other principles of human acts may be found, they obey reason somewhat, but in various ways...

Q892: Whether virtue is adequately divided into moral and intellectual?

Human virtue is a habit perfecting man in view of his doing good deeds...

Q893: Whether there can be moral without intellectual virtue?

Moral virtue can be without some of the intellectual virtues, viz. wisdom, science, and art; but not without understanding and prudence...

Q894: Whether there can be intellectual without moral virtue?

Other intellectual virtues can, but prudence cannot, be without moral virtue...

OF MORAL VIRTUE IN RELATION TO THE PASSIONS

Q895: Whether moral virtue is a passion?

Moral virtue cannot be a passion...

Q896: Whether there can be moral virtue with passion?

The Stoics and Peripatetics disagreed on this point, as Augustine relates ...

Q897: Whether sorrow is compatible with moral virtue?

As Augustine says, the Stoics held that in the mind of the wise man there are three {eupatheiai}, i.e. "three good passions," in place of the three disturbances: viz. instead of covetousness, "desire"; instead of mirth, "joy"; instead of fear, "caution"...

Q898: Whether all the moral virtues are about the passions?

Moral virtue perfects the appetitive part of the soul by directing it to good as defined by reason...

Q899: Whether there can be moral virtue without passion?

If we take the passions as being inordinate emotions, as the Stoics did, it is evident that in this sense perfect virtue is without the passions...

HOW THE MORAL VIRTUES DIFFER FROM ONE ANOTHER

Q900: Whether there is only one moral virtue?

As stated above, the moral virtues are habits of the appetitive faculty...

Q901: Whether moral virtues about operations are different from those that are about passions?

Operation and passion stand in a twofold relation to virtue...

Q902: Whether there is only one moral virtue about operations?

All the moral virtues that are about operations agree in one general notion of justice, which is in respect of something due to another: but they differ in respect of various special notions...

Q903: Whether there are different moral virtues about different passions?

It cannot be said that there is only one moral virtue about all the passions: since some passions are not in the same power as other passions; for some belong to the irascible, others to the concupiscible faculty, as stated above .

Q904: Whether the moral virtues differ in point of the various objects of the passions?

The perfection of a virtue depends on the reason; whereas the perfection of a passion depends on the sensitive appetite...

OF THE CARDINAL VIRTUES

Q905: Whether the moral virtues should be called cardinal or principal virtues?

When we speak of virtue simply, we are understood to speak of human virtue...

Q906: Whether there are four cardinal virtues?

Things may be numbered either in respect of their formal principles, or according to the subjects in which they are: and either way we find that there are four cardinal virtues.

Q907: Whether any other virtues should be called principal rather than these?

As stated above, these four are reckoned as cardinal virtues, in respect of the four formal principles of virtue as we understand it now...

Q908: Whether the four cardinal virtues differ from one another?

As stated above, these four virtues are understood differently by various writers...

Q909: Whether the cardinal virtues are fittingly divided into social virtues, perfecting, perfect, and exemplar virtues?

As Augustine says, "the soul needs to follow something in order to give birth to virtue: this something is God: if we follow Him we shall live aright"...

OF THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES

Q910: Whether there are any theological virtues?

Man is perfected by virtue, for those actions whereby he is directed to happiness, as was explained above ...

Q911: Whether the theological virtues are distinct from the intellectual and moral virtues?

As stated above, habits are specifically distinct from one another in respect of the formal difference of their objects...

Q912: Whether faith, hope, and charity are fittingly reckoned as theological virtues?

As stated above, the theological virtues direct man to supernatural happiness in the same way as by the natural inclination man is directed to his connatural end...

Q913: Whether faith precedes hope, and hope charity?

Order is twofold: order of generation, and order of perfection...

OF THE CAUSE OF VIRTUES

Q914: Whether virtue is in us by nature?

With regard to corporeal forms, it has been maintained by some that they are wholly from within, by those, for instance, who upheld the theory of "latent forms"...

Q915: Whether any virtue is caused in us by habituation?

We have spoken above in a general way about the production of habits from acts; and speaking now in a special way of this matter in relation to virtue, we must take note that, as stated above, man's virtue perfects him in relation to good...

Q916: Whether any moral virtues are in us by infusion?

Effects must needs be proportionate to their causes and principles...

Q917: Whether virtue by habituation belongs to the same species as infused virtue?

There is a twofold specific difference among habits...

OF THE MEAN OF VIRTUE

Q918: Whether moral virtues observe the mean?

As already explained, the nature of virtue is that it should direct man to good...

Q919: Whether the mean of moral virtue is the real mean, or the rational mean?

The rational mean can be understood in two ways...

Q920: Whether the intellectual virtues observe the mean?

The good of anything consists in its observing the mean, by conforming with a rule or measure in respect of which it may happen to be excessive or deficient, as stated above ...

Q921: Whether the theological virtues observe the mean?

As stated above, the mean of virtue depends on conformity with virtue's rule or measure, in so far as one may exceed or fall short of that rule...

OF THE CONNECTION OF VIRTUES

Q922: Whether the moral virtues are connected with one another?

Moral virtue may be considered either as perfect or as imperfect...

Q923: Whether moral virtues can be without charity?

As stated above, it is possible by means of human works to acquire moral virtues, in so far as they produce good works that are directed to an end not surpassing the natural power of man: and when they are acquired thus, they can be without charity, even as they were in many of the Gentiles...

Q924: Whether charity can be without moral virtue?

All the moral virtues are infused together with charity...

Q925: Whether faith and hope can be without charity?

Faith and hope, like the moral virtues, can be considered in two ways; first in an inchoate state; secondly, as complete virtues...

Q926: Whether charity can be without faith and hope?

Charity signifies not only the love of God, but also a certain friendship with Him; which implies, besides love, a certain mutual return of love, together with mutual communion, as stated in Ethic. viii, 2...

OF EQUALITY AMONG THE VIRTUES

Q927: Whether one virtue can be greater or less than another?

When it is asked whether one virtue can be greater than another, the question can be taken in two senses...

Q928: Whether all the virtues that are together in one man, are equal?

As explained above, the comparative greatness of virtues can be understood in two ways...

Q929: Whether the moral virtues are better than the intellectual virtues?

A thing may be said to be greater or less in two ways: first, simply; secondly, relatively...

Q930: Whether justice is the chief of the moral virtues?

A virtue considered in its species may be greater or less, either simply or relatively...

Q931: Whether wisdom is the greatest of the intellectual virtues?

As stated above, the greatness of a virtue, as to its species, is taken from its object...

Q932: Whether charity is the greatest of the theological virtues?

As stated above, the greatness of a virtue, as to its species, is taken from its object...

OF THE DURATION OF VIRTUES AFTER THIS LIFE

Q933: Whether the moral virtues remain after this life?

As Augustine says, Cicero held that the cardinal virtues do not remain after this life; and that, as Augustine says, "in the other life men are made happy by the mere knowledge of that nature, than which nothing is better or more lovable, that Nature, to wit, which created all others"...

Q934: Whether the intellectual virtues remain after this life?

As stated earlier, some have held that the intelligible species do not remain in the passive intellect except when it actually understands; and that so long as actual consideration ceases, the species are not preserved save in the sensitive powers which are acts of bodily organs, viz. in the powers of imagination and memory...

Q935: Whether faith remains after this life?

Opposition is of itself the proper cause of one thing being excluded from another, in so far, to wit, as wherever two things are opposite to one another, we find opposition of affirmation and negation...

Q936: Whether hope remains after death, in the state of glory?

As stated above, that which, in its very nature, implies imperfection of its subject, is incompatible with the opposite perfection in that subject...

Q937: Whether anything of faith or hope remains in glory?

Some have held that hope is taken away entirely: but that faith is taken away in part, viz. as to its obscurity, and remains in part, viz. as to the substance of its knowledge...

Q938: Whether charity remains after this life, in glory?

As stated above, when the imperfection of a thing does not belong to its specific nature, there is nothing to hinder the identical thing passing from imperfection to perfection, even as man is perfected by growth, and whiteness by intensity...

OF THE GIFTS

Q939: Whether the Gifts differ from the virtues?

If we speak of gift and virtue with regard to the notion conveyed by the words themselves, there is no opposition between them...

Q940: Whether the gifts are necessary to man for salvation?

As stated above, the gifts are perfections of man, whereby he is disposed so as to be amenable to the promptings of God...

Q941: Whether the gifts of the Holy Ghost are habits?

As stated above, the gifts are perfections of man, whereby he becomes amenable to the promptings of the Holy Ghost...

Q942: Whether the seven gifts of the Holy Ghost are suitably enumerated?

As stated above, the gifts are habits perfecting man so that he is ready to follow the promptings of the Holy Ghost, even as the moral virtues perfect the appetitive powers so that they obey the reason...

Q943: Whether the gifts of the Holy Ghost are connected?

The true answer to this question is easily gathered from what has been already set down...

Q944: Whether the gifts of the Holy Ghost remain in heaven?

We may speak of the gifts in two ways: first, as to their essence; and thus they will be most perfectly in heaven, as may be gathered from the passage of Ambrose, just quoted...

Q945: Whether the gifts are set down by Isaias in their order of dignity?

The excellence of the gifts can be measured in two ways: first, simply, viz. by comparison to their proper acts as proceeding from their principles; secondly, relatively, viz. by comparison to their matter...

Q946: Whether the virtues are more excellent than the gifts?

As was shown above, there are three kinds of virtues: for some are theological, some intellectual, and some moral...

OF THE BEATITUDES

Q947: Whether the beatitudes differ from the virtues and gifts?

As stated above, happiness is the last end of human life...

Q948: Whether the rewards assigned to the beatitudes refer to this life?

Expounders of Holy Writ are not agreed in speaking of these rewards...

Q949: Whether the beatitudes are suitably enumerated?

These beatitudes are most suitably enumerated...

Q950: Whether the rewards of the beatitudes are suitably enumerated?

These rewards are most suitably assigned, considering the nature of the beatitudes in relation to the three kinds of happiness indicated above ...

OF THE FRUITS OF THE HOLY GHOST

Q951: Whether the fruits of the Holy Ghost which the Apostle enumerates are acts?

The word "fruit" has been transferred from the material to the spiritual world...

Q952: Whether the fruits differ from the beatitudes?

More is required for a beatitude than for a fruit...

Q953: Whether the fruits are suitably enumerated by the Apostle?

The number of the twelve fruits enumerated by the Apostle is suitable, and that there may be a reference to them in the twelve fruits of which it is written : "On both sides of the river was the tree bearing twelve fruits"...

Q954: Whether the fruits of the Holy Ghost are contrary to the works of the flesh?

The works of the flesh and the fruits of the Spirit may be taken in two ways...

EVIL HABITS, i.e. VICES AND SINS

Q955: Whether vice is contrary to virtue?

Two things may be considered in virtue---the essence of virtue, and that to which virtue is ordained...

Q956: Whether vice is contrary to nature?

As stated above, vice is contrary to virtue...

Q957: Whether vice is worse than a vicious act?

A habit stands midway between power and act...

Q958: Whether sin is compatible with virtue?

Sin is compared to virtue, as evil act to good habit...

Q959: Whether every sin includes an action?

The reason for urging this question has reference to the sin of omission, about which there have been various opinions...

Q960: Whether sin is fittingly defined as a word, deed, or desire contrary to the eternal law?

As was shown above, sin is nothing else than a bad human act...

OF THE DISTINCTION OF SINS

Q961: Whether sins differ in species according to their objects?

As stated above, two things concur in the nature of sin, viz. the voluntary act, and its inordinateness, which consists in departing from God's law...

Q962: Whether spiritual sins are fittingly distinguished from carnal sins?

As stated above, sins take their species from their objects...

Q963: Whether sins differ specifically in reference to their causes?

Since there are four kinds of causes, they are attributed to various things in various ways...

Q964: Whether sin is fittingly divided into sin against God, against oneself, and against one's neighbor?

As stated above, sin is an inordinate act...

Q965: Whether the division of sins according to their debt of punishment diversifies their species?

In things that differ specifically we find a twofold difference: the first causes the diversity of species, and is not to be found save in different species, e.g. "rational" and "irrational," "animate," and "inanimate": the other difference is consequent to specific diversity; and though, in some cases, it may be consequent to specific diversity, yet, in others, it may be found within the same species; thus "white" and "black" are consequent to the specific diversity of crow and swan, and yet this difference is found within the one species of man.

Q966: Whether sins of commission and omission differ specifically?

There is a twofold difference in sins; a material difference and a formal difference: the material difference is to be observed in the natural species of the sinful act; while the formal difference is gathered from their relation to one proper end, which is also their proper object...

Q967: Whether sins are fittingly divided into sins of thought, word, and deed?

Things differ specifically in two ways: first, when each has the complete species; thus a horse and an ox differ specifically: secondly, when the diversity of species is derived from diversity of degree in generation or movement: thus the building is the complete generation of a house, while the laying of the foundations, and the setting up of the walls are incomplete species, as the Philosopher declares ; and the same can apply to the generation of animals...

Q968: Whether excess and deficiency diversify the species of sins?

While there are two things in sin, viz. the act itself and its inordinateness, in so far as sin is a departure from the order of reason and the Divine law, the species of sin is gathered, not from its inordinateness, which is outside the sinner's intention, as stated above, but one the contrary, from the act itself as terminating in the object to which the sinner's intention is directed...

Q969: Whether sins differ specifically in respect of different circumstances?

As stated above, wherever there is a special motive for sinning, there is a different species of sin, because the motive for sinning is the end and object of sin...

OF THE COMPARISON OF ONE SIN WITH ANOTHER

Q970: Whether all sins are connected with one another?

The intention of the man who acts according to virtue in pursuance of his reason, is different from the intention of the sinner in straying from the path of reason...

Q971: Whether all sins are equal?

The opinion of the Stoics, which Cicero adopts in the book on Paradoxes, was that all sins are equal: from which opinion arose the error of certain heretics, who not only hold all sins to be equal, but also maintain that all the pains of hell are equal...

Q972: Whether the gravity of sins varies according to their objects?

As is clear from what has been said, the gravity of sins varies in the same way as one sickness is graver than another: for just as the good of health consists in a certain commensuration of the humors, in keeping with an animal's nature, so the good of virtue consists in a certain commensuration of the human act in accord with the rule of reason...

Q973: Whether the gravity of sins depends on the excellence of the virtues to which they are opposed?

A sin is opposed to a virtue in two ways: first, principally and directly; that sin, to with, which is about the same object: because contraries are about the same thing...

Q974: Whether carnal sins are of less guilt than spiritual sins?

Spiritual sins are of greater guilt than carnal sins: yet this does not mean that each spiritual sin is of greater guilt than each carnal sin; but that, considering the sole difference between spiritual and carnal, spiritual sins are more grievous than carnal sins, other things being equal...

Q975: Whether the gravity of a sin depends on its cause?

In the genus of sin, as in every other genus, two causes may be observed...

Q976: Whether a circumstance aggravates a sin?

As the Philosopher says in speaking of habits of virtue, "it is natural for a thing to be increased by that which causes it"...

Q977: Whether sin is aggravated by reason of its causing more harm?

Harm may bear a threefold relation to sin...

Q978: Whether a sin is aggravated by reason of the condition of the person against whom it is committed?

The person sinned against is, in a manner, the object of the sin...

Q979: Whether the excellence of the person sinning aggravates the sin?

Sin is twofold...

OF THE SUBJECT OF SIN

Q980: Whether the will is a subject of sin?

Sin is an act, as stated above ...

Q981: Whether the will alone is the subject of sin?

As was shown above, whatever is the a principle of a voluntary act is a subject of sin...

Q982: Whether there can be sin in the sensuality?

As stated above, sin may be found in any power whose act can be voluntary and inordinate, wherein consists the nature of sin...

Q983: Whether mortal sin can be in the sensuality?

Just as a disorder which destroys the principle of the body's life causes the body's death, so too a disorder which destroys the principle of spiritual life, viz. the last end, causes spiritual death, which is mortal sin, as stated above ...

Q984: Whether sin can be in the reason?

The sin of any power is an act of that power, as we have clearly shown ...

Q985: Whether the sin of morose delectation is in the reason?

As stated, sin may be in the reason, not only in respect of reason's proper act, but sometimes in respect of its directing human actions...

Q986: Whether the sin of consent to the act is in the higher reason?

Consent implies a judgment about the thing to which consent is given...

Q987: Whether consent to delectation is a mortal sin?

There have been various opinions on this point, for some have held that consent to delectation is not a mortal sin, but only a venial sin, while others have held it to be a mortal sin, and this opinion is more common and more probable...

Q988: Whether there can be venial sin in the higher reason as directing the lower powers?

As Augustine says, the higher reason "is intent on contemplating or consulting the eternal law"; it contemplates it by considering its truth; it consults it by judging and directing other things according to it: and to this pertains the fact that by deliberating through the eternal types, it consents to an act or dissents from it...

Q989: Whether venial sin can be in the higher reason as such?

The higher reason regards its own object otherwise than the objects of the lower powers that are directed by the higher reason...

OF THE CAUSES OF SIN, IN GENERAL

Q990: Whether sin has a cause?

A sin is an inordinate act...

Q991: Whether sin has an internal cause?

As stated above, the direct cause of sin must be considered on the part of the act...

Q992: Whether sin has an external cause?

As stated above, the internal cause of sin is both the will, as completing the sinful act, and the reason, as lacking the due rule, and the appetite, as inclining to sin...

Q993: Whether one sin is a cause of another?

Forasmuch as a sin has a cause on the part of the act of sin, it is possible for one sin to be the cause of another, in the same way as one human act is the cause of another...

OF THE CAUSES OF SIN, IN PARTICULAR

Q994: Whether ignorance can be a cause of sin?

According to the Philosopher a moving cause is twofold, direct and indirect...

Q995: Whether ignorance is a sin?

Ignorance differs from nescience, in that nescience denotes mere absence of knowledge; wherefore whoever lacks knowledge about anything, can be said to be nescient about it: in which sense Dionysius puts nescience in the angels ...

Q996: Whether ignorance excuses from sin altogether?

Ignorance, by its very nature, renders the act which it causes involuntary...

Q997: Whether ignorance diminishes a sin?

Since every sin is voluntary, ignorance can diminish sin, in so far as it diminishes its voluntariness; and if it does not render it less voluntary, it nowise alleviates the sin...

OF THE CAUSE OF SIN, ON THE PART OF THE SENSITIVE APPETITE

Q998: Whether the will is moved by a passion of the senstive appetite?

A passion of the sensitive appetite cannot draw or move the will directly; but it can do so indirectly, and this in two ways...

Q999: Whether the reason can be overcome by a passion, against its knowledge?

As the Philosopher states, the opinion of Socrates was that knowledge can never be overcome by passion; wherefore he held every virtue to be a kind of knowledge, and every sin a kind of ignorance...

Q1000: Whether a sin committed through passion, should be called a sin of weakness?

The cause of sin is on the part of the soul, in which, chiefly, sin resides...

Q1001: Whether self-love is the source of every sin?

As stated above, the proper and direct cause of sin is to be considered on the part of the adherence to a mutable good; in which respect every sinful act proceeds from inordinate desire for some temporal good...

Q1002: Whether concupiscence of the flesh, concupiscence of the eyes, and pride of life are fittingly described as causes of sin?

As stated above, inordinate self-love is the cause of every sin...

Q1003: Whether sin is alleviated on account of a passion?

Sin consists essentially in an act of the free will, which is a faculty of the will and reason; while passion is a movement of the sensitive appetite...

Q1004: Whether passion excuses from sin altogether?

An act which, in its genus, is evil, cannot be excused from sin altogether, unless it be rendered altogether involuntary...

Q1005: Whether a sin committed through passion can be mortal?

Mortal sin, as stated above, consists in turning away from our last end which is God, which aversion pertains to the deliberating reason, whose function it is also to direct towards the end...

OF THAT CAUSE OF SIN WHICH IS MALICE

Q1006: Whether anyone sins through certain malice?

Man like any other being has naturally an appetite for the good; and so if his appetite incline away to evil, this is due to corruption or disorder in some one of the principles of man: for it is thus that sin occurs in the actions of natural things...

Q1007: Whether everyone that sins through habit, sins through certain malice?

There is a difference between a sin committed by one who has the habit, and a sin committed by habit: for it is not necessary to use a habit, since it is subject to the will of the person who has that habit...

Q1008: Whether one who sins through certain malice, sins through habit?

The will is related differently to good and to evil...

Q1009: Whether it is more grievous to sin through certain malice than through passion?

A sin committed through malice is more grievous than a sin committed through passion, for three reasons...

OF THE EXTERNAL CAUSES OF SIN

Q1010: Whether God is a cause of sin?

Man is, in two ways, a cause either of his own or of another's sin...

Q1011: Whether the act of sin is from God?

The act of sin is both a being and an act; and in both respects it is from God...

Q1012: Whether God is the cause of spiritual blindness and hardness of heart?

Spiritual blindness and hardness of heart imply two things...

Q1013: Whether blindness and hardness of heart are directed to the salvation of those who are blinded and hardened?

Blindness is a kind of preamble to sin...

OF THE CAUSE OF SIN, AS REGARDS THE DEVIL

Q1014: Whether the devil is directly the cause of man's sinning?

Sin is an action: so that a thing can be directly the cause of sin, in the same way as anyone is directly the cause of an action; and this can only happen by moving that action's proper principle to act...

Q1015: Whether the devil can induce man to sin, by internal instigations?

The interior part of the soul is intellective and sensitive; and the intellective part contains the intellect and the will...

Q1016: Whether the devil can induce man to sin of necessity?

The devil, by his own power, unless he be restrained by God, can compel anyone to do an act which, in its genus, is a sin; but he cannot bring about the necessity of sinning...

Q1017: Whether all the sins of men are due to the devil's suggestion?

The devil is the occasional and indirect cause of all our sins, in so far as he induced the first man to sin, by reason of whose sin human nature is so infected, that we are all prone to sin: even as the burning of wood might be imputed to the man who dried the wood so as to make it easily inflammable...

OF THE CAUSE OF SIN, ON THE PART OF MAN

Q1018: Whether the first sin of our first parent is contracted by his descendants, by way of origin?

According to the Catholic Faith we are bound to hold that the first sin of the first man is transmitted to his descendants, by way of origin...

Q1019: Whether also other sins of the first parent or of nearer ancestors are transmitted to their descendants?

Augustine puts this question in the Enchiridion xlvi, xlvii, and leaves it unsolved...

Q1020: Whether the sin of the first parent is transmitted, by the way of origin, to all men?

According to the Catholic Faith we must firmly believe that, Christ alone excepted, all men descended from Adam contract original sin from him; else all would not need redemption which is through Christ; and this is erroneous...

Q1021: Whether original sin would be contracted by a person formed miraculously from human flesh?

As stated above, original sin is transmitted from the first parent to his posterity, inasmuch as they are moved by him through generation, even as the members are moved by the soul to actual sin...

Q1022: Whether if Eve, and not Adam, had sinned, their children would have contracted original sin?

The solution of this question is made clear by what has been said...

OF ORIGINAL SIN, AS TO ITS ESSENCE

Q1023: Whether original sin is a habit?

As stated above, habit is twofold...

Q1024: Whether there are several original sins in one man?

In one man there is one original sin...

Q1025: Whether original sin is concupiscence?

Everything takes its species from its form: and it has been stated that the species of original sin is taken from its cause...

Q1026: Whether original sin is equally in all?

There are two things in original sin: one is the privation of original justice; the other is the relation of this privation to the sin of our first parent, from whom it is transmitted to man through his corrupt origin...

OF THE SUBJECT OF ORIGINAL SIN

Q1027: Whether original sin is more in the flesh than in the soul?

One thing can be in another in two ways...

Q1028: Whether original sin is in the essence of the soul rather than in the powers?

The subject of a sin is chiefly that part of the soul to which the motive cause of that sin primarily pertains: thus if the motive cause of a sin is sensual pleasure, which regards the concupiscible power through being its proper object, it follows that the concupiscible power is the proper subject of that sin...

Q1029: Whether original sin infects the will before the other powers?

Two things must be considered in the infection of original sin...

Q1030: Whether the aforesaid powers are more infected than the others?

Those corruptions especially are said to be infectious, which are of such a nature as to be transmitted from one subject to another: hence contagious diseases, such as leprosy and murrain and the like, are said to be infectious...

OF THE CAUSE OF SIN, IN RESPECT OF ONE SIN BEING THE CAUSE OF ANOTHER

Q1031: Whether covetousness is the root of all sins?

According to some, covetousness may be understood in different ways...

Q1032: Whether pride is the beginning of every sin?

Some say pride is to be taken in three ways...

Q1033: Whether any other special sins, besides pride and avarice, should be called capital?

The word capital is derived from "caput" ...

Q1034: Whether the seven capital vices are suitably reckoned?

As stated above, the capital vices are those which give rise to others, especially by way of final cause...

OF THE EFFECTS OF SIN, AND, FIRST, OF THE CORRUPTION OF THE GOOD OF NATURE

Q1035: Whether sin diminishes the good of nature?

The good of human nature is threefold...

Q1036: Whether the entire good of human nature can be destroyed by sin?

As stated above, the good of nature, that is diminished by sin, is the natural inclination to virtue, which is befitting to man from the very fact that he is a rational being; for it is due to this that he performs actions in accord with reason, which is to act virtuously...

Q1037: Whether weakness, ignorance, malice and concupiscence are suitably reckoned as the wounds of nature consequent upon sin?

As a result of original justice, the reason had perfect hold over the lower parts of the soul, while reason itself was perfected by God, and was subject to Him...

Q1038: Whether privation of mode, species and order is the effect of sin?

As stated earlier, mode, species and order are consequent upon every created good, as such, and also upon every being...

Q1039: Whether death and other bodily defects are the result of sin?

One thing causes another in two ways: first, by reason of itself; secondly, accidentally...

Q1040: Whether death and other defects are natural to man?

We may speak of any corruptible thing in two ways; first, in respect of its universal nature, secondly, as regards its particular nature...

OF THE STAIN OF SIN

Q1041: Whether sin causes a stain on the soul?

A stain is properly ascribed to corporeal things, when a comely body loses its comeliness through contact with another body, e.g. a garment, gold or silver, or the like...

Q1042: Whether the stain remains in the soul after the act of sin?

The stain of sin remains in the soul even when the act of sin is past...

OF THE DEBT OF PUNISHMENT

Q1043: Whether the debt of punishment is an effect of sin?

It has passed from natural things to human affairs that whenever one thing rises up against another, it suffers some detriment therefrom...

Q1044: Whether sin can be the punishment of sin?

We may speak of sin in two ways: first, in its essence, as such; secondly, as to that which is accidental thereto...

Q1045: Whether any sin incurs a debt of eternal punishment?

As stated above, sin incurs a debt of punishment through disturbing an order...

Q1046: Whether sin incurs a debt of punishment infinite in quantity?

Punishment is proportionate to sin...

Q1047: Whether every sin incurs a debt of eternal punishment?

As stated above, a sin incurs a debt of eternal punishment, in so far as it causes an irreparable disorder in the order of Divine justice, through being contrary to the very principle of that order, viz. the last end...

Q1048: Whether the debt of punishment remains after sin?

Two things may be considered in sin: the guilty act, and the consequent stain...

Q1049: Whether every punishment is inflicted for a sin?

As already stated, punishment can be considered in two ways---simply, and as being satisfactory...

Q1050: Whether anyone is punished for another's sin?

If we speak of that satisfactory punishment, which one takes upon oneself voluntarily, one may bear another's punishment, in so far as they are, in some way, one, as stated above ...

OF VENIAL AND MORTAL SIN

Q1051: Whether venial sin is fittingly condivided with mortal sin?

Certain terms do not appear to be mutually opposed, if taken in their proper sense, whereas they are opposed if taken metaphorically: thus "to smile" is not opposed to "being dry"; but if we speak of the smiling meadows when they are decked with flowers and fresh with green hues this is opposed to drought...

Q1052: Whether mortal and venial sin differ generically?

Venial sin is so called from "venia" ...

Q1053: Whether venial sin is a disposition to mortal sin?

A disposition is a kind of cause; wherefore as there is a twofold manner of cause, so is there a twofold manner of disposition...

Q1054: Whether a venial sin can become mortal?

The fact of a venial sin becoming a mortal sin may be understood in three ways...

Q1055: Whether a circumstance can make a venial sin to be mortal?

As stated above, when we were treating of circumstances, a circumstance, as such, is an accident of the moral act: and yet a circumstance may happen to be taken as the specific difference of a moral act, and then it loses its nature of circumstance, and constitutes the species of the moral act...

Q1056: Whether a mortal sin can become venial?

Venial and mortal differ as perfect and imperfect in the genus of sin, as stated above ...

OF VENIAL SIN IN ITSELF

Q1057: Whether venial sin causes a stain on the soul?

As stated above, a stain denotes a loss of comeliness due to contact with something, as may be seen in corporeal matters, from which the term has been transferred to the soul, by way of similitude...

Q1058: Whether venial sins are suitably designated as "wood, hay, and stubble"?

Some have understood the "foundation" to be dead faith, upon which some build good works, signified by gold, silver, and precious stones, while others build mortal sins, which according to them are designated by wood, hay and stubble...

Q1059: Whether man could commit a venial sin in the state of innocence?

It is generally admitted that man could not commit a venial sin in the state of innocence...

Q1060: Whether a good or a wicked angel can sin venially?

An angel's intellect, as stated earlier, is not discursive, i.e. it does not proceed from principles to conclusions, so as to understand both separately, as we do...

Q1061: Whether the first movements of the sensuality in unbelievers are mortal sin?

It is unreasonable to say that the first movements of unbelievers are mortal sins, when they do not consent to them...

Q1062: Whether venial sin can be in anyone with original sin alone?

It is impossible for venial sin to be in anyone with original sin alone, and without mortal sin...

TREATISE ON LAW

OF THE ESSENCE OF LAW

Q1063: Whether law is something pertaining to reason?

Law is a rule and measure of acts, whereby man is induced to act or is restrained from acting: for "lex" is derived from "ligare", because it binds one to act...

Q1064: Whether the law is always something directed to the common good?

As stated above, the law belongs to that which is a principle of human acts, because it is their rule and measure...

Q1065: Whether the reason of any man is competent to make laws?

A law, properly speaking, regards first and foremost the order to the common good...

Q1066: Whether promulgation is essential to a law?

As stated above, a law is imposed on others by way of a rule and measure...

OF THE VARIOUS KINDS OF LAW

Q1067: Whether there is an eternal law?

As stated above, a law is nothing else but a dictate of practical reason emanating from the ruler who governs a perfect community...

Q1068: Whether there is in us a natural law?

As stated above, law, being a rule and measure, can be in a person in two ways: in one way, as in him that rules and measures; in another way, as in that which is ruled and measured, since a thing is ruled and measured, in so far as it partakes of the rule or measure...

Q1069: Whether there is a human law?

As stated above, a law is a dictate of the practical reason...

Q1070: Whether there was any need for a Divine law?

Besides the natural and the human law it was necessary for the directing of human conduct to have a Divine law...

Q1071: Whether there is but one Divine law?

As stated earlier, distinction is the cause of number...

Q1072: Whether there is a law in the fomes of sin?

As stated above, the law, as to its essence, resides in him that rules and measures; but, by way of participation, in that which is ruled and measured; so that every inclination or ordination which may be found in things subject to the law, is called a law by participation, as stated above ...

OF THE EFFECTS OF LAW

Q1073: Whether an effect of law is to make men good?

As stated above, a law is nothing else than a dictate of reason in the ruler by whom his subjects are governed...

Q1074: Whether the acts of law are suitably assigned?

Just as an assertion is a dictate of reason asserting something, so is a law a dictate of reason, commanding something...

OF THE ETERNAL LAW

Q1075: Whether the eternal law is a sovereign type existing in God?

Just as in every artificer there pre-exists a type of the things that are made by his art, so too in every governor there must pre-exist the type of the order of those things that are to be done by those who are subject to his government...

Q1076: Whether the eternal law is known to all?

A thing may be known in two ways: first, in itself; secondly, in its effect, wherein some likeness of that thing is found: thus someone not seeing the sun in its substance, may know it by its rays...

Q1077: Whether every law is derived from the eternal law?

As stated above, the law denotes a kind of plan directing acts towards an end...

Q1078: Whether necessary and eternal things are subject to the eternal law?

As stated above, the eternal law is the type of the Divine government...

Q1079: Whether natural contingents are subject to the eternal law?

We must speak otherwise of the law of man, than of the eternal law which is the law of God...

Q1080: Whether all human affairs are subject to the eternal law?

There are two ways in which a thing is subject to the eternal law, as explained above : first, by partaking of the eternal law by way of knowledge; secondly, by way of action and passion, i.e. by partaking of the eternal law by way of an inward motive principle: and in this second way, irrational creatures are subject to the eternal law, as stated above ...

OF THE NATURAL LAW

Q1081: Whether the natural law is a habit?

A thing may be called a habit in two ways...

Q1082: Whether the natural law contains several precepts, or only one?

As stated above, the precepts of the natural law are to the practical reason, what the first principles of demonstrations are to the speculative reason; because both are self-evident principles...

Q1083: Whether all acts of virtue are prescribed by the natural law?

We may speak of virtuous acts in two ways: first, under the aspect of virtuous; secondly, as such and such acts considered in their proper species...

Q1084: Whether the natural law is the same in all men?

As stated above, to the natural law belongs those things to which a man is inclined naturally: and among these it is proper to man to be inclined to act according to reason...

Q1085: Whether the natural law can be changed?

A change in the natural law may be understood in two ways...

Q1086: Whether the law of nature can be abolished from the heart of man?

As stated above, there belong to the natural law, first, certain most general precepts, that are known to all; and secondly, certain secondary and more detailed precepts, which are, as it were, conclusions following closely from first principles...

OF HUMAN LAW

Q1087: Whether it was useful for laws to be framed by men?

As stated above, man has a natural aptitude for virtue; but the perfection of virtue must be acquired by man by means of some kind of training...

Q1088: Whether every human law is derived from the natural law?

As Augustine says "that which is not just seems to be no law at all": wherefore the force of a law depends on the extent of its justice...

Q1089: Whether Isidore's description of the quality of positive law is appropriate?

Whenever a thing is for an end, its form must be determined proportionately to that end; as the form of a saw is such as to be suitable for cutting ...

Q1090: Whether Isidore's division of human laws is appropriate?

A thing can of itself be divided in respect of something contained in the notion of that thing...

OF THE POWER OF HUMAN LAW

Q1091: Whether human law should be framed for the community rather than for the individual?

Whatever is for an end should be proportionate to that end...

Q1092: Whether it belongs to the human law to repress all vices?

As stated above, law is framed as a rule or measure of human acts...

Q1093: Whether human law prescribes acts of all the virtues?

The species of virtues are distinguished by their objects, as explained above ...

Q1094: Whether human law binds a man in conscience?

Laws framed by man are either just or unjust...

Q1095: Whether all are subject to the law?

As stated above, the notion of law contains two things: first, that it is a rule of human acts; secondly, that it has coercive power...

Q1096: Whether he who is under a law may act beside the letter of the law?

As stated above, every law is directed to the common weal of men, and derives the force and nature of law accordingly...

OF CHANGE IN LAWS

Q1097: Whether human law should be changed in any way?

As stated above, human law is a dictate of reason, whereby human acts are directed...

Q1098: Whether human law should always be changed, whenever something better occurs?

As stated above, human law is rightly changed, in so far as such change is conducive to the common weal...

Q1099: Whether custom can obtain force of law?

All law proceeds from the reason and will of the lawgiver; the Divine and natural laws from the reasonable will of God; the human law from the will of man, regulated by reason...

Q1100: Whether the rulers of the people can dispense from human laws?

Dispensation, properly speaking, denotes a measuring out to individuals of some common goods: thus the head of a household is called a dispenser, because to each member of the household he distributes work and necessaries of life in due weight and measure...

OF THE OLD LAW

Q1101: Whether the Old Law was good?

Without any doubt, the Old Law was good...

Q1102: Whether the Old Law was from God?

The Old Law was given by the good God, Who is the Father of Our Lord Jesus Christ...

Q1103: Whether the Old Law was given through the angels?

The Law was given by God through the angels...

Q1104: Whether the Old Law should have been given to the Jews alone?

It might be assigned as a reason for the Law being given to the Jews rather than to other peoples, that the Jewish people alone remained faithful to the worship of one God, while the others turned away to idolatry; wherefore the latter were unworthy to receive the Law, lest a holy thing should be given to dogs.

Q1105: Whether all men were bound to observe the Old Law?

The Old Law showed forth the precepts of the natural law, and added certain precepts of its own...

Q1106: Whether the Old Law was suitably given at the time of Moses?

It was most fitting for the Law to be given at the time of Moses...

OF THE PRECEPTS OF THE OLD LAW

Q1107: Whether the Old Law contains only one precept?

Since a precept of law is binding, it is about something which must be done: and, that a thing must be done, arises from the necessity of some end...

Q1108: Whether the Old Law contains moral precepts?

The Old Law contained some moral precepts; as is evident fromEx. 20:13, 15: "Thou shalt not kill, Thou shalt not steal"...

Q1109: Whether the Old Law comprises ceremonial, besides moral, precepts?

As stated above, the Divine law is instituted chiefly in order to direct men to God; while human law is instituted chiefly in order to direct men in relation to one another...

Q1110: Whether, besides the moral and ceremonial precepts, there are also judicial precepts?

As stated above, it belongs to the Divine law to direct men to one another and to God...

Q1111: Whether the Old Law contains any others besides the moral, judicial, and ceremonial precepts?

Some things are included in the Law by way of precept; other things, as being ordained to the fulfilment of the precepts...

Q1112: Whether the Old Law should have induced men to the observance of its precepts, by means of temporal promises and threats?

As in speculative sciences men are persuaded to assent to the conclusions by means of syllogistic arguments, so too in every law, men are persuaded to observe its precepts by means of punishments and rewards...

OF THE MORAL PRECEPTS OF THE OLD LAW

Q1113: Whether all the moral precepts of the Old Law belong to the law of nature?

The moral precepts, distinct from the ceremonial and judicial precepts, are about things pertaining of their very nature to good morals...

Q1114: Whether the moral precepts of the Law are about all the acts of virtue?

Since the precepts of the Law are ordained to the common good, as stated above, the precepts of the Law must needs be diversified according to the various kinds of community: hence the Philosopher teaches that the laws which are made in a state which is ruled by a king must be different from the laws of a state which is ruled by the people, or by a few powerful men in the state...

Q1115: Whether all the moral precepts of the Old Law are reducible to the ten precepts of the decalogue?

The precepts of the decalogue differ from the other precepts of the Law, in the fact that God Himself is said to have given the precepts of the decalogue; whereas He gave the other precepts to the people through Moses...

Q1116: Whether the precepts of the decalogue are suitably distinguished from one another?

The precepts of the decalogue are differently divided by different authorities...

Q1117: Whether the precepts of the decalogue are suitably set forth?

As stated above, just as the precepts of human law direct man in his relations to the human community, so the precepts of the Divine law direct man in his relations to a community or commonwealth of men under God...

Q1118: Whether the ten precepts of the decalogue are set in proper order?

As stated above, the precepts of the decalogue are such as the mind of man is ready to grasp at once...

Q1119: Whether the precepts of the decalogue are suitably formulated?

The highest wisdom is contained in the precepts of the Divine law: wherefore it is written : "This is your wisdom and understanding in the sight of nations"...

Q1120: Whether the precepts of the decalogue are dispensable?

As stated above, precepts admit of dispensation, when there occurs a particular case in which, if the letter of the law be observed, the intention of the lawgiver is frustrated...

Q1121: Whether the mode of virtue falls under the precept of the law?

As stated above, a precept of law has compulsory power...

Q1122: Whether the mode of charity falls under the precept of the Divine law?

Opinions have been contrary on this question...

Q1123: Whether it is right to distinguish other moral precepts of the law besides the decalogue?

As is evident from what has been stated, the judicial and ceremonial precepts derive their force from their institution alone: since before they were instituted, it seemed of no consequence whether things were done in this or that way...

Q1124: Whether the moral precepts of the Old Law justified man?

Just as "healthy" is said properly and first of that which is possessed of health, and secondarily of that which is a sign or a safeguard of health; so justification means first and properly the causing of justice; while secondarily and improperly, as it were, it may denote a sign of justice or a disposition thereto...

OF THE CEREMONIAL PRECEPTS IN THEMSELVES

Q1125: Whether the nature of the ceremonial precepts consists in their pertaining to the worship of God?

As stated above, the ceremonial precepts are determinations of the moral precepts whereby man is directed to God, just as the judicial precepts are determinations of the moral precepts whereby he is directed to his neighbor...

Q1126: Whether the ceremonial precepts are figurative?

As stated above, the ceremonial precepts are those which refer to the worship of God...

Q1127: Whether there should have been man ceremonial precepts?

As stated above, every law is given to a people...

Q1128: Whether the ceremonies of the Old Law are suitably divided into sacrifices, sacred things, sacraments, and observances?

As stated above, the ceremonial precepts are ordained to the Divine worship...

OF THE CAUSES OF THE CEREMONIAL PRECEPTS

Q1129: Whether there was any cause for the ceremonial precepts?

Since, according to the Philosopher, it is the function of a "wise man to do everything in order," those things which proceed from the Divine wisdom must needs be well ordered, as the Apostle states ...

Q1130: Whether the ceremonial precepts have a literal cause or merely a figurative cause?

As stated above, the reason for whatever conduces to an end must be taken from that end...

Q1131: Whether a suitable cause can be assigned for the ceremonies which pertained to sacrifices?

As stated above, the ceremonies of the Old Law had a twofold cause, viz. a literal cause, according as they were intended for Divine worship; and a figurative or mystical cause, according as they were intended to foreshadow Christ: and on either hand the ceremonies pertaining to the sacrifices can be assigned to a fitting cause.

Q1132: Whether sufficient reason can be assigned for the ceremonies pertaining to holy things?

The chief purpose of the whole external worship is that man may give worship to God...

Q1133: Whether there can be any suitable cause for the sacraments of the Old Law?

As stated above, the sacraments are, properly speaking, things applied to the worshippers of God for their consecration so as, in some way, to depute them to the worship of God...

Q1134: Whether there was any reasonable cause for the ceremonial observances?

The Jewish people, as stated above, were specially chosen for the worship of God, and among them the priests themselves were specially set apart for that purpose...

OF THE DURATION OF THE CEREMONIAL PRECEPTS

Q1135: Whether the ceremonies of the Law were in existence before the Law?

As is clear from what has been said, the legal ceremonies were ordained for a double purpose; the worship of God, and the foreshadowing of Christ...

Q1136: Whether, at the time of the Law, the ceremonies of the Old Law had any power of justification?

As stated above, a twofold uncleanness was distinguished in the Old Law...

Q1137: Whether the ceremonies of the Old Law ceased at the coming of Christ?

All the ceremonial precepts of the Old Law were ordained to the worship of God as stated above ...

Q1138: Whether since Christ's Passion the legal ceremonies can be observed without committing mortal sin?

All ceremonies are professions of faith, in which the interior worship of God consists...

OF THE JUDICIAL PRECEPTS

Q1139: Whether the judicial precepts were those which directed man in relation to his neighbor?

As is evident from what we have stated above, in every law, some precepts derive their binding force from the dictate of reason itself, because natural reason dictates that something ought to be done or to be avoided...

Q1140: Whether the judicial precepts were figurative?

A precept may be figurative in two ways...

Q1141: Whether the judicial precepts of the Old Law bind for ever?

The judicial precepts did not bind for ever, but were annulled by the coming of Christ: yet not in the same way as the ceremonial precepts...

Q1142: Whether it is possible to assign a distinct division of the judicial precepts?

Since law is the art, as it were, of directing or ordering the life of man, as in every art there is a distinct division in the rules of art, so, in every law, there must be a distinct division of precepts: else the law would be rendered useless by confusion...

OF THE REASON FOR THE JUDICIAL PRECEPTS

Q1143: Whether the Old Law enjoined fitting precepts concerning rulers?

Two points are to be observed concerning the right ordering of rulers in a state or nation...

Q1144: Whether the judicial precepts were suitably framed as to the relations of one man with another?

As Augustine says, quoting Tully, "a nation is a body of men united together by consent to the law and by community of welfare"...

Q1145: Whether the judicial precepts regarding foreigners were framed in a suitable manner?

Man's relations with foreigners are twofold: peaceful, and hostile: and in directing both kinds of relation the Law contained suitable precepts...

Q1146: Whether the Old Law set forth suitable precepts about the members of the household?

The mutual relations of the members of a household regard everyday actions directed to the necessities of life, as the Philosopher states ...

OF THE LAW OF THE GOSPEL, CALLED THE NEW LAW, CONSIDERED IN ITSELF

Q1147: Whether the New Law is a written law?

"Each thing appears to be that which preponderates in it," as the Philosopher states ...

Q1148: Whether the New Law justifies?

As stated above, there is a twofold element in the Law of the Gospel...

Q1149: Whether the New Law should have been given from the beginning of the world?

Three reasons may be assigned why it was not fitting for the New Law to be given from the beginning of the world...

Q1150: Whether the New Law will last till the end of the world?

The state of the world may change in two ways...

OF THE NEW LAW AS COMPARED WITH THE OLD

Q1151: Whether the New Law is distinct from the Old Law?

As stated above, every law ordains human conduct to some end...

Q1152: Whether the New Law fulfils the Old?

As stated above, the New Law is compared to the Old as the perfect to the imperfect...

Q1153: Whether the New Law is contained in the Old?

One thing may be contained in another in two ways...

Q1154: Whether the New Law is more burdensome than the Old?

A twofold difficult may attach to works of virtue with which the precepts of the Law are concerned...

OF THOSE THINGS THAT ARE CONTAINED IN THE NEW LAW

Q1155: Whether the New Law ought to prescribe or prohibit any external acts?

As stated above, the New Law consists chiefly in the grace of the Holy Ghost, which is shown forth by faith that worketh through love...

Q1156: Whether the New Law made sufficient ordinations about external acts?

As stated above, the New Law had to make such prescriptions or prohibitions alone as are essential for the reception or right use of grace...

Q1157: Whether the New Law directed man sufficiently as regards interior actions?

As is evident from Augustine's words just quoted, the sermon, contains the whole process of forming the life of a Christian...

Q1158: Whether certain definite counsels are fittingly proposed in the New Law?

The difference between a counsel and a commandment is that a commandment implies obligation, whereas a counsel is left to the option of the one to whom it is given...

TREATISE ON GRACE

OF THE NECESSITY OF GRACE

Q1159: Whether without grace man can know any truth?

To know truth is a use or act of intellectual light, since, according to the Apostle : "All that is made manifest is light"...

Q1160: Whether man can wish or do any good without grace?

Man's nature may be looked at in two ways: first, in its integrity, as it was in our first parent before sin; secondly, as it is corrupted in us after the sin of our first parent...

Q1161: Whether by his own natural powers and without grace man can love God above all things?

As was said above, where the various opinions concerning the natural love of the angels were set forth, man in a state of perfect nature, could by his natural power, do the good natural to him without the addition of any gratuitous gift, though not without the help of God moving him...

Q1162: Whether man without grace and by his own natural powers can fulfil the commandments of the Law?

There are two ways of fulfilling the commandments of the Law...

Q1163: Whether man can merit everlasting life without grace?

Acts conducing to an end must be proportioned to the end...

Q1164: Whether a man, by himself and without the external aid of grace, can prepare himself for grace?

The preparation of the human will for good is twofold: the first, whereby it is prepared to operate rightly and to enjoy God; and this preparation of the will cannot take place without the habitual gift of grace, which is the principle of meritorious works, as stated above ...

Q1165: Whether man can rise from sin without the help of grace?

Man by himself can no wise rise from sin without the help of grace...

Q1166: Whether man without grace can avoid sin?

We may speak of man in two ways: first, in the state of perfect nature; secondly, in the state of corrupted nature...

Q1167: Whether one who has already obtained grace, can, of himself and without further help of grace, do good and avoid sin?

As stated above, in order to live righteously a man needs a twofold help of God---first, a habitual gift whereby corrupted human nature is healed, and after being healed is lifted up so as to work deeds meritoriously of everlasting life, which exceed the capability of nature...

Q1168: Whether man possessed of grace needs the help of grace in order to persevere?

Perseverance is taken in three ways...

OF THE GRACE OF GOD AS REGARDS ITS ESSENCE

Q1169: Whether grace implies anything in the soul?

According to the common manner of speech, grace is usually taken in three ways...

Q1170: Whether grace is a quality of the soul?

As stated above, there is understood to be an effect of God's gratuitous will in whoever is said to have God's grace...

Q1171: Whether grace is the same as virtue?

Some held that grace and virtue were identical in essence, and differed only logically---in the sense that we speak of grace inasmuch as it makes man pleasing to God, or is given gratuitously---and of virtue inasmuch as it empowers us to act rightly...

Q1172: Whether grace is in the essence of the soul as in a subject, or in one of the powers?

This question depends on the preceding...

OF THE DIVISION OF GRACE

Q1173: Whether grace is fittingly divided into sanctifying grace and gratuitous grace?

As the Apostle says, "those things that are of God are well ordered "...

Q1174: Whether grace is fittingly divided into operating and cooperating grace?

As stated above grace may be taken in two ways; first, as a Divine help, whereby God moves us to will and to act; secondly, as a habitual gift divinely bestowed on us.

Q1175: Whether grace is fittingly divided into prevenient and subsequent grace?

As grace is divided into operating and cooperating, with regard to its diverse effects, so also is it divided into prevenient and subsequent, howsoever we consider grace...

Q1176: Whether gratuitous grace is rightly divided by the Apostle?

As was said above, gratuitous grace is ordained to this, viz. that a man may help another to be led to God...

Q1177: Whether gratuitous grace is nobler than sanctifying grace?

The higher the good to which a virtue is ordained, the more excellent is the virtue...

OF THE CAUSE OF GRACE

Q1178: Whether God alone is the cause of grace?

Nothing can act beyond its species, since the cause must always be more powerful than its effect...

Q1179: Whether any preparation and disposition for grace is required on man's part?

As stated above, grace is taken in two ways: first, as a habitual gift of God...

Q1180: Whether grace is necessarily given to whoever prepares himself for it, or to whoever does what he can?

As stated above, man's preparation for grace is from God, as Mover, and from the free-will, as moved...

Q1181: Whether grace is greater in one than in another?

As stated above, habits can have a double magnitude: one, as regards the end or object, as when a virtue is said to be more noble through being ordained to a greater good; the other on the part of the subject, which more or less participates in the habit inhering to it.

Q1182: Whether man can know that he has grace?

There are three ways of knowing a thing: first, by revelation, and thus anyone may know that he has grace, for God by a special privilege reveals this at times to some, in order that the joy of safety may begin in them even in this life, and that they may carry on toilsome works with greater trust and greater energy, and may bear the evils of this present life, as when it was said to Paul : "My grace is sufficient for thee"...

OF THE EFFECTS OF GRACE

Q1183: Whether the justification of the ungodly is the remission of sins?

Justification taken passively implies a movement towards heat...

Q1184: Whether the infusion of grace is required for the remission of guilt, i.e. for the justification of the ungodly?

By sinning a man offends God as stated above ...

Q1185: Whether for the justification of the ungodly is required a movement of the free-will?

The justification of the ungodly is brought about by God moving man to justice...

Q1186: Whether a movement of faith is required for the justification of the ungodly?

As stated above a movement of free-will is required for the justification of the ungodly, inasmuch as man's mind is moved by God...

Q1187: Whether for the justification of the ungodly there is required a movement of the free-will towards sin?

As stated above, the justification of the ungodly is a certain movement whereby the human mind is moved by God from the state of sin to the state of justice...

Q1188: Whether the remission of sins ought to be reckoned amongst the things required for justification?

There are four things which are accounted to be necessary for the justification of the ungodly, viz. the infusion of grace, the movement of the free-will towards God by faith, the movement of the free-will towards sin, and the remission of sins...

Q1189: Whether the justification of the ungodly takes place in an instant or successively?

The entire justification of the ungodly consists as to its origin in the infusion of grace...

Q1190: Whether the infusion of grace is naturally the first of the things required for the justification of the ungodly?

The aforesaid four things required for the justification of the ungodly are simultaneous in time, since the justification of the ungodly is not successive, as stated above ; but in the order of nature, one is prior to another; and in their natural order the first is the infusion of grace; the second, the free-will's movement towards God; the third, the free-will's movement towards sin; the fourth, the remission of sin.

Q1191: Whether the justification of the ungodly is God's greatest work?

A work may be called great in two ways: first, on the part of the mode of action, and thus the work of creation is the greatest work, wherein something is made from nothing; secondly, a work may be called great on account of what is made, and thus the justification of the ungodly, which terminates at the eternal good of a share in the Godhead, is greater than the creation of heaven and earth, which terminates at the good of mutable nature...

Q1192: Whether the justification of the ungodly is a miraculous work?

In miraculous works it is usual to find three things: the first is on the part of the active power, because they can only be performed by Divine power; and they are simply wondrous, since their cause is hidden, as stated above ...

OF MERIT

Q1193: Whether a man may merit anything from God?

Merit and reward refer to the same, for a reward means something given anyone in return for work or toil, as a price for it...

Q1194: Whether anyone without grace can merit eternal life?

Man without grace may be looked at in two states, as was said above : the first, a state of perfect nature, in which Adam was before his sin; the second, a state of corrupt nature, in which we are before being restored by grace...

Q1195: Whether a man in grace can merit eternal life condignly?

Man's meritorious work may be considered in two ways: first, as it proceeds from free-will; secondly, as it proceeds from the grace of the Holy Ghost...

Q1196: Whether grace is the principle of merit through charity rather than the other virtues?

As we may gather from what has been stated above, human acts have the nature of merit from two causes: first and chiefly from the Divine ordination, inasmuch as acts are said to merit that good to which man is divinely ordained...

Q1197: Whether a man may merit for himself the first grace?

The gift of grace may be considered in two ways: first in the nature of a gratuitous gift, and thus it is manifest that all merit is repugnant to grace, since as the Apostle says, "if by grace, it is not now by works"...

Q1198: Whether a man can merit the first grace for another?

As shown above, our works are meritorious from two causes: first, by virtue of the Divine motion; and thus we merit condignly; secondly, according as they proceed from free-will in so far as we do them willingly, and thus they have congruous merit, since it is congruous that when a man makes good use of his power God should by His super-excellent power work still higher things...

Q1199: Whether a man may merit restoration after a fall?

No one can merit for himself restoration after a future fall, either condignly or congruously...

Q1200: Whether a man may merit the increase of grace or charity?

As stated above, whatever the motion of grace reaches to, falls under condign merit...

Q1201: Whether a man may merit perseverance?

Since man's free-will is naturally flexible towards good and evil, there are two ways of obtaining from God perseverance in good: first, inasmuch as free-will is determined to good by consummate grace, which will be in glory; secondly, on the part of the Divine motion, which inclines man to good unto the end...

Q1202: Whether temporal goods fall under merit?

What falls under merit is the reward or wage, which is a kind of good...

TREATISE ON THE THEOLOGICAL VIRTUES

OF FAITH

Q1203: Whether the object of faith is the First Truth?

The object of every cognitive habit includes two things: first, that which is known materially, and is the material object, so to speak, and, secondly, that whereby it is known, which is the formal aspect of the object...

Q1204: Whether the object of faith is something complex, by way of a proposition?

The thing known is in the knower according to the mode of the knower...

Q1205: Whether anything false can come under faith?

Nothing comes under any power, habit or act, except by means of the formal aspect of the object: thus color cannot be seen except by means of light, and a conclusion cannot be known save through the mean of demonstration...

Q1206: Whether the object of faith can be something seen?

Faith implies assent of the intellect to that which is believed...

Q1207: Whether those things that are of faith can be an object of science

All science is derived from self-evident and therefore "seen" principles; wherefore all objects of science must needs be, in a fashion, seen.

Q1208: Whether those things that are of faith should be divided into certain articles?

The word "article" is apparently derived from the Greek; for the Greek {arthron} which the Latin renders "articulus," signifies a fitting together of distinct parts: wherefore the small parts of the body which fit together are called the articulations of the limbs...

Q1209: Whether the articles of faith have increased in course of time?

The articles of faith stand in the same relation to the doctrine of faith, as self-evident principles to a teaching based on natural reason...

Q1210: Whether the articles of faith are suitably formulated?

As stated above, to faith those things in themselves belong, the sight of which we shall enjoy in eternal life, and by which we are brought to eternal life...

Q1211: Whether it is suitable for the articles of faith to be embodied in a symbol?

As the Apostle says, "he that cometh to God, must believe that He is"...

Q1212: Whether it belongs to the Sovereign Pontiff to draw up a symbol of faith?

As stated above, a new edition of the symbol becomes necessary in order to set aside the errors that may arise...

OF THE ACT OF FAITH

Q1213: Whether to believe is to think with assent?

"To think" can be taken in three ways...

Q1214: Whether the act of faith is suitably distinguished as believing God, believing in a God and believing in God?

The act of any power or habit depends on the relation of that power or habit to its object...

Q1215: Whether it is necessary for salvation to believe anything above the natural reason?

Wherever one nature is subordinate to another, we find that two things concur towards the perfection of the lower nature, one of which is in respect of that nature's proper movement, while the other is in respect of the movement of the higher nature...

Q1216: Whether it is necessary to believe those things which can be proved by natural reason?

It is necessary for man to accept by faith not only things which are above reason, but also those which can be known by reason: and this for three motives...

Q1217: Whether man is bound to believe anything explicitly?

The precepts of the Law, which man is bound to fulfil, concern acts of virtue which are the means of attaining salvation...

Q1218: Whether all are equally bound to have explicit faith?

The unfolding of matters of faith is the result of Divine revelation: for matters of faith surpass natural reason...

Q1219: Whether it is necessary for the salvation of all, that they should believe explicitly in the mystery of Christ?

As stated above, the object of faith includes, properly and directly, that thing through which man obtains beatitude...

Q1220: Whether it is necessary for salvation to believe explicitly in the Trinity?

It is impossible to believe explicitly in the mystery of Christ, without faith in the Trinity, since the mystery of Christ includes that the Son of God took flesh; that He renewed the world through the grace of the Holy Ghost; and again, that He was conceived by the Holy Ghost...

Q1221: Whether to believe is meritorious?

As stated above, our actions are meritorious in so far as they proceed from the free-will moved with grace by God...

Q1222: Whether reasons in support of what we believe lessen the merit of faith?

As stated above, the act of faith can be meritorious, in so far as it is subject to the will, not only as to the use, but also as to the assent...

OF THE OUTWARD ACT OF FAITH

Q1223: Whether confession is an act of faith?

Outward actions belong properly to the virtue to whose end they are specifically referred: thus fasting is referred specifically to the end of abstinence, which is to tame the flesh, and consequently it is an act of abstinence.

Q1224: Whether confession of faith is necessary for salvation?

Things that are necessary for salvation come under the precepts of the Divine law...

OF THE VIRTUE ITSELF OF FAITH

Q1225: Whether this is a fitting definition of faith: "Faith is the substance of things to be hoped for, the evidence of things that appear not?"

Though some say that the above words of the Apostle are not a definition of faith, yet if we consider the matter aright, this definition overlooks none of the points in reference to which faith can be defined, albeit the words themselves are not arranged in the form of a definition, just as the philosophers touch on the principles of the syllogism, without employing the syllogistic form.

Q1226: Whether faith resides in the intellect?

Since faith is a virtue, its act must needs be perfect...

Q1227: Whether charity is the form of faith?

As appears from what has been said above, voluntary acts take their species from their end which is the will's object...

Q1228: Whether lifeless faith can become living, or living faith, lifeless?

There have been various opinions on this question...

Q1229: Whether faith is a virtue?

As shown above, it is by human virtue that human acts are rendered good; hence, any habit that is always the principle of a good act, may be called a human virtue...

Q1230: Whether faith is one virtue?

If we take faith as a habit, we can consider it in two ways...

Q1231: Whether faith is the first of the virtues?

One thing can precede another in two ways: first, by its very nature; secondly, by accident...

Q1232: Whether faith is more certain than science and the other intellectual virtues?

As stated above two of the intellectual virtues are about contingent matter, viz. prudence and art; to which faith is preferable in point of certitude, by reason of its matter, since it is about eternal things, which never change, whereas the other three intellectual virtues, viz. wisdom, science and understanding, are about necessary things, as stated above ...

OF THOSE WHO HAVE FAITH

Q1233: Whether there was faith in the angels, or in man, in their original state?

Some say that there was no faith in the angels before they were confirmed in grace or fell from it, and in man before he sinned, by reason of the manifest contemplation that they had of Divine things...

Q1234: Whether in the demons there is faith?

As stated above, the believer's intellect assents to that which he believes, not because he sees it either in itself, or by resolving it to first self-evident principles, but because his will commands his intellect to assent...

Q1235: Whether a man who disbelieves one article of faith, can have lifeless faith in the other articles?

Neither living nor lifeless faith remains in a heretic who disbelieves one article of faith.

Q1236: Whether faith can be greater in one man than in another?

As stated above, the quantity of a habit may be considered from two points of view: first, on the part of the object; secondly, on the part of its participation by the subject.

OF THE CAUSE OF FAITH

Q1237: Whether faith is infused into man by God?

Two things are requisite for faith...

Q1238: Whether lifeless faith is a gift of God?

Lifelessness is a privation...

OF THE EFFECTS OF FAITH

Q1239: Whether fear is an effect of faith?

Fear is a movement of the appetitive power, as stated above ...

Q1240: Whether faith has the effect of purifying the heart?

A thing is impure through being mixed with baser things: for silver is not called impure, when mixed with gold, which betters it, but when mixed with lead or tin...

OF THE GIFT OF UNDERSTANDING

Q1241: Whether understanding is a gift of the Holy Ghost?

Understanding implies an intimate knowledge, for "intelligere" is the same as "intus legere" ...

Q1242: Whether the gift of understanding is compatible with faith?

We need to make a twofold distinction here: one on the side of faith, the other on the part of understanding.

Q1243: Whether the gift of understanding is merely speculative or also practical?

As stated above, the gift of understanding is not only about those things which come under faith first and principally, but also about all things subordinate to faith...

Q1244: Whether the gift of understanding is in all who are in a state of grace?

In all who are in a state of grace, there must needs be rectitude of the will, since grace prepares man's will for good, according to Augustine ...

Q1245: Whether the gift of understanding is found also in those who have not sanctifying grace?

As stated above the gifts of the Holy Ghost perfect the soul, according as it is amenable to the motion of the Holy Ghost...

Q1246: Whether the gift of understanding is distinct from the other gifts?

The difference between the gift of understanding and three of the others, viz. piety, fortitude, and fear, is evident, since the gift of understanding belongs to the cognitive power, while the three belong to the appetitive power.

Q1247: Whether the sixth beatitude, "Blessed are the clean of heart," etc., responds to the gift of understanding?

Two things are contained in the sixth beatitude, as also in the others, one by way of merit, viz. cleanness of heart; the other by way of reward, viz. the sight of God, as stated above, and each of these, in some way, responds to the gift of understanding.

Q1248: Whether faith, among the fruits, responds to the gift of understanding?

The fruits of the Spirit, as stated above, when we were discussing them, are so called because they are something ultimate and delightful, produced in us by the power of the Holy Ghost...

OF THE GIFT OF KNOWLEDGE

Q1249: Whether knowledge is a gift?

Grace is more perfect than nature, and, therefore, does not fail in those things wherein man can be perfected by nature...

Q1250: Whether the gift of knowledge is about Divine things?

A sure judgment about a thing formed chiefly from its cause, and so the order of judgments should be according to the order of causes...

Q1251: Whether the gift of knowledge is practical knowledge?

As stated above, the gift of knowledge, like the gift of understanding, is ordained to the certitude of faith...

Q1252: Whether the third beatitude, "Blessed are they that mourn," etc. corresponds to the gift of knowledge?

Right judgment about creatures belongs properly to knowledge...

OF UNBELIEF IN GENERAL

Q1253: Whether unbelief is a sin?

Unbelief may be taken in two ways: first, by way of pure negation, so that a man be called an unbeliever, merely because he has not the faith...

Q1254: Whether unbelief is in the intellect as its subject?

As stated above, sin is said to be in the power which is the principle of the sinful act...

Q1255: Whether unbelief is the greatest of sin?

Every sin consists formally in aversion from God, as stated above ...

Q1256: Whether every act of an unbeliever is a sin?

As stated above mortal sin takes away sanctifying grace, but does not wholly corrupt the good of nature...

Q1257: Whether there are several species of unbelief?

As stated above, every virtue consists in following some rule of human knowledge or operation...

Q1258: Whether the unbelief of pagans or heathens is graver than other kinds?

As stated above, two things may be considered in unbelief...

Q1259: Whether one ought to dispute with unbelievers in public?

In disputing about the faith, two things must be observed: one on the part of the disputant; the other on the part of his hearers...

Q1260: Whether unbelievers ought to be compelled to the faith?

Among unbelievers there are some who have never received the faith, such as the heathens and the Jews: and these are by no means to be compelled to the faith, in order that they may believe, because to believe depends on the will: nevertheless they should be compelled by the faithful, if it be possible to do so, so that they do not hinder the faith, by their blasphemies, or by their evil persuasions, or even by their open persecutions...

Q1261: Whether it is lawful to communicate with unbelievers?

Communication with a particular person is forbidden to the faithful, in two ways: first, as a punishment of the person with whom they are forbidden to communicate; secondly, for the safety of those who are forbidden to communicate with others...

Q1262: Whether unbelievers may have authority or dominion over the faithful?

That this question may be considered in two ways...

Q1263: Whether the rites of unbelievers ought to be tolerated?

Human government is derived from the Divine government, and should imitate it...

Q1264: Whether the children of Jews and other unbelievers ought to be baptized against their parents' will?

The custom of the Church has very great authority and ought to be jealously observed in all things, since the very doctrine of catholic doctors derives its authority from the Church...

OF HERESY

Q1265: Whether heresy is a species of unbelief?

The word heresy as stated in the first objection denotes a choosing...

Q1266: Whether heresy is properly about matters of faith?

We are speaking of heresy now as denoting a corruption of the Christian faith...

Q1267: Whether heretics ought to be tolerated?

With regard to heretics two points must be observed: one, on their own side; the other, on the side of the Church...

Q1268: Whether the Church should receive those who return from heresy?

In obedience to Our Lord's institution, the Church extends her charity to all, not only to friends, but also to foes who persecute her, according to Mat. 5:44: "Love your enemies; do good to them that hate you"...

OF APOSTASY

Q1269: Whether apostasy pertains to unbelief?

Apostasy denotes a backsliding from God...

Q1270: Whether a prince forfeits his dominion over his subjects, on account of apostasy from the faith, so that they no longer owe him allegiance?

As stated above, unbelief, in itself, is not inconsistent with dominion, since dominion is a device of the law of nations which is a human law: whereas the distinction between believers and unbelievers is of Divine right, which does not annul human right...

OF THE SIN OF BLASPHEMY, IN GENERAL

Q1271: Whether blasphemy is opposed to the confession of faith?

The word blasphemy seems to denote the disparagement of some surpassing goodness, especially that of God...

Q1272: Whether blasphemy is always a mortal sin?

As stated above, a mortal sin is one whereby a man is severed from the first principle of spiritual life, which principle is the charity of God...

Q1273: Whether the sin of blasphemy is the greatest sin?

As stated above, blasphemy is opposed to the confession of faith, so that it contains the gravity of unbelief: while the sin is aggravated if the will's detestation is added thereto, and yet more, if it breaks out into words, even as love and confession add to the praise of faith.

Q1274: Whether the damned blaspheme?

As stated above, detestation of the Divine goodness is a necessary condition of blasphemy...

OF BLASPHEMY AGAINST THE HOLY GHOST

Q1275: Whether the sin against the Holy Ghost is the same as the sin committed through certain malice?

Three meanings have been given to the sin against the Holy Ghost...

Q1276: Whether it is fitting to distinguish six kinds of sin against the Holy Ghost?

The above species are fittingly assigned to the sin against the Holy Ghost taken in the third sense, because they are distinguished in respect of the removal of contempt of those things whereby a man can be prevented from sinning through choice...

Q1277: Whether the sin against the Holy Ghost can be forgiven?

According to the various interpretations of the sin against the Holy Ghost, there are various ways in which it may be said that it cannot be forgiven...

Q1278: Whether a man can sin first of all against the Holy Ghost?

As stated above, in one way, to sin against the Holy Ghost is to sin through certain malice...

OF THE VICES OPPOSED TO KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Q1279: Whether blindness of mind is a sin?

Just as bodily blindness is the privation of the principle of bodily sight, so blindness of mind is the privation of the principle of mental or intellectual sight...

Q1280: Whether dulness of sense is a sin distinct from blindness of mind?

Dull is opposed to sharp: and a thing is said to be sharp because it can pierce; so that a thing is called dull through being obtuse and unable to pierce...

Q1281: Whether blindness of mind and dulness of sense arise from sins of the flesh?

The perfect intellectual operation in man consists in an abstraction from sensible phantasms, wherefore the more a man's intellect is freed from those phantasms, the more thoroughly will it be able to consider things intelligible, and to set in order all things sensible...

OF THE PRECEPTS OF FAITH, KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING

Q1282: Whether in the Old Law there should have been given precepts of faith?

A master does not impose laws on others than his subjects; wherefore the precepts of a law presuppose that everyone who receives the law is subject to the giver of the law...

Q1283: Whether the precepts referring to knowledge and understanding were fittingly set down in the Old Law?

Three things may be considered in relation to knowledge and understanding: first, the reception thereof; secondly, the use; and thirdly, their preservation...

OF HOPE, CONSIDERED IN ITSELF

Q1284: Whether hope is a virtue?

According to the Philosopher "the virtue of a thing is that which makes its subject good, and its work good likewise"...

Q1285: Whether eternal happiness is the proper object of hope?

As stated above, the hope of which we speak now, attains God by leaning on His help in order to obtain the hoped for good...

Q1286: Whether one man may hope for another's eternal happiness?

We can hope for something in two ways: first, absolutely, and thus the object of hope is always something arduous and pertaining to the person who hopes...

Q1287: Whether a man can lawfully hope in man?

Hope, as stated above, regards two things, viz. the good which it intends to obtain, and the help by which that good is obtained...

Q1288: Whether hope is a theological virtue?

Since specific differences, by their very nature, divide a genus, in order to decide under what division we must place hope, we must observe whence it derives its character of virtue.

Q1289: Whether hope is distinct from the other theological virtues?

A virtue is said to be theological from having God for the object to which it adheres...

Q1290: Whether hope precedes faith?

Absolutely speaking, faith precedes hope...

Q1291: Whether charity precedes hope?

Order is twofold...

OF THE SUBJECT OF HOPE

Q1292: Whether hope is in the will as its subject?

As shown above, habits are known by their acts...

Q1293: Whether in the blessed there is hope?

If what gives a thing its species be removed, the species is destroyed, and that thing cannot remain the same; just as when a natural body loses its form, it does not remain the same specifically...

Q1294: Whether hope is in the damned?

Just as it is a condition of happiness that the will should find rest therein, so is it a condition of punishment, that what is inflicted in punishment, should go against the will...

Q1295: Whether there is certainty in the hope of a wayfarer?

Certainty is found in a thing in two ways, essentially and by participation...

OF THE GIFT OF FEAR

Q1296: Whether God can be feared?

Just as hope has two objects, one of which is the future good itself, that one expects to obtain, while the other is someone's help, through whom one expects to obtain what one hopes for, so, too, fear may have two objects, one of which is the very evil which a man shrinks from, while the other is that from which the evil may come...

Q1297: Whether fear is fittingly divided into filial, initial, servile and worldly fear?

We are speaking of fear now, in so far as it makes us turn, so to speak, to God or away from Him...

Q1298: Whether worldly fear is always evil?

As shown above moral acts and habits take their name and species from their objects...

Q1299: Whether servile fear is good?

It is owing to its servility that servile fear may be evil...

Q1300: Whether servile fear is substantially the same as filial fear?

The proper object of fear is evil...

Q1301: Whether servile fear remains with charity?

Servile fear proceeds from self-love, because it is fear of punishment which is detrimental to one's own good...

Q1302: Whether fear is the beginning of wisdom?

A thing may be called the beginning of wisdom in two ways: in one way because it is the beginning of wisdom itself as to its essence; in another way, as to its effect...

Q1303: Whether initial fear differs substantially from filial fear?

Initial fear is so called because it is a beginning ...

Q1304: Whether fear is a gift of the Holy Ghost?

Fear is of several kinds, as stated above ...

Q1305: Whether fear decreases when charity increases?

Fear is twofold, as stated above ; one is filial fear, whereby a son fears to offend his father or to be separated from him; the other is servile fear, whereby one fears punishment.

Q1306: Whether fear remains in heaven?

Servile fear, or fear of punishment, will by no means be in heaven, since such a fear is excluded by the security which is essential to everlasting happiness, as stated above .

Q1307: Whether poverty of spirit is the beatitude corresponding to the gift of fear?

Poverty of spirit properly corresponds to fear...

OF DESPAIR

Q1308: Whether despair is a sin?

According to the Philosopher affirmation and negation in the intellect correspond to search and avoidance in the appetite; while truth and falsehood in the intellect correspond to good and evil in the appetite...

Q1309: Whether there can be despair without unbelief?

Unbelief pertains to the intellect, but despair, to the appetite: and the intellect is about universals, while the appetite is moved in connection with particulars, since the appetitive movement is from the soul towards things, which, in themselves, are particular...

Q1310: Whether despair is the greatest of sins?

Those sins which are contrary to the theological virtues are in themselves more grievous than others: because, since the theological virtues have God for their object, the sins which are opposed to them imply aversion from God directly and principally...

Q1311: Whether despair arises from sloth?

As stated above, the object of hope is a good, difficult but possible to obtain by oneself or by another...

OF PRESUMPTION

Q1312: Whether presumption trusts in God or in our own power?

Presumption seems to imply immoderate hope...

Q1313: Whether presumption is a sin?

As stated above with regard to despair, every appetitive movement that is conformed to a false intellect, is evil in itself and sinful...

Q1314: Whether presumption is more opposed to fear than to hope?

As Augustine states, "every virtue not only has a contrary vice manifestly distinct from it, as temerity is opposed to prudence, but also a sort of kindred vice, alike, not in truth but only in its deceitful appearance, as cunning is opposed to prudence"...

Q1315: Whether presumption arises from vainglory?

As stated above, presumption is twofold; one whereby a man relies on his own power, when he attempts something beyond his power, as though it were possible to him...

OF THE PRECEPTS RELATING TO HOPE AND FEAR

Q1316: Whether there should be a precept of hope?

Among the precepts contained in Holy Writ, some belong to the substance of the Law, others are preambles to the Law...

Q1317: Whether there should have been given a precept of fear?

Fear is twofold, servile and filial...

OF CHARITY, CONSIDERED IN ITSELF

Q1318: Whether charity is friendship?

According to the Philosopher not every love has the character of friendship, but that love which is together with benevolence, when, to wit, we love someone so as to wish good to him...

Q1319: Whether charity is something created in the soul?

The Master looks thoroughly into this question in the First Book, and concludes that charity is not something created in the soul, but is the Holy Ghost Himself dwelling in the mind...

Q1320: Whether charity is a virtue?

Human acts are good according as they are regulated by their due rule and measure...

Q1321: Whether charity is a special virtue?

Acts and habits are specified by their objects, as shown above ...

Q1322: Whether charity is one virtue?

Charity, as stated above is a kind of friendship of man for God...

Q1323: Whether charity is the most excellent of the virtues?

Since good, in human acts, depends on their being regulated by the due rule, it must needs be that human virtue, which is a principle of good acts, consists in attaining the rule of human acts...

Q1324: Whether any true virtue is possible without charity?

Virtue is ordered to the good, as stated above ...

Q1325: Whether charity is the form of the virtues?

In morals the form of an act is taken chiefly from the end...

OF THE SUBJECT OF CHARITY

Q1326: Whether the will is the subject of charity?

Since, as stated earlier, the appetite is twofold, namely the sensitive, and the intellective which is called the will, the object of each is the good, but in different ways: for the object of the sensitive appetite is a good apprehended by sense, whereas the object of the intellective appetite or will is good under the universal aspect of good, according as it can be apprehended by the intellect...

Q1327: Whether charity is caused in us by infusion?

As stated above, charity is a friendship of man for God, founded upon the fellowship of everlasting happiness...

Q1328: Whether charity is infused according to the capacity of our natural gifts?

The quantity of a thing depends on the proper cause of that thing, since the more universal cause produces a greater effect...

Q1329: Whether charity can increase?

The charity of a wayfarer can increase...

Q1330: Whether charity increases by addition?

Every addition is of something to something else: so that in every addition we must at least presuppose that the things added together are distinct before the addition...

Q1331: Whether charity increases through every act of charity?

The spiritual increase of charity is somewhat like the increase of a body...

Q1332: Whether charity increases indefinitely?

A term to the increase of a form may be fixed in three ways: first by reason of the form itself having a fixed measure, and when this has been reached it is no longer possible to go any further in that form, but if any further advance is made, another form is attained...

Q1333: Whether charity can be perfect in this life?

The perfection of charity may be understood in two ways: first with regard to the object loved, secondly with regard to the person who loves...

Q1334: Whether charity is rightly distinguished into three degrees, beginning, progress, and perfection?

The spiritual increase of charity may be considered in respect of a certain likeness to the growth of the human body...

Q1335: Whether charity can decrease?

The quantity which charity has in comparison with its proper object, cannot decrease, even as neither can it increase, as stated above .

Q1336: Whether we can lose charity when once we have it?

The Holy Ghost dwells in us by charity, as shown above ...

Q1337: Whether charity is lost through one mortal sin?

That one contrary is removed by the other contrary supervening...

OF THE OBJECT OF CHARITY

Q1338: Whether the love of charity stops at God, or extends to our neighbor?

As stated above habits are not differentiated except their acts be of different species...

Q1339: Whether we should love charity out of charity?

Charity is love...

Q1340: Whether irrational creatures also ought to be loved out of charity?

According to what has been stated above charity is a kind of friendship...

Q1341: Whether a man ought to love himself out of charity?

Since charity is a kind of friendship, as stated above, we may consider charity from two standpoints: first, under the general notion of friendship, and in this way we must hold that, properly speaking, a man is not a friend to himself, but something more than a friend, since friendship implies union, for Dionysius says that "love is a unitive force," whereas a man is one with himself which is more than being united to another...

Q1342: Whether a man ought to love his body out of charity?

Our bodies can be considered in two ways: first, in respect of their nature, secondly, in respect of the corruption of sin and its punishment.

Q1343: Whether we ought to love sinners out of charity?

Two things may be considered in the sinner: his nature and his guilt...

Q1344: Whether sinners love themselves?

Love of self is common to all, in one way; in another way it is proper to the good; in a third way, it is proper to the wicked...

Q1345: Whether charity requires that we should love our enemies?

Love of one's enemies may be understood in three ways...

Q1346: Whether it is necessary for salvation that we should show our enemies the signs and effects of love?

The effects and signs of charity are the result of inward love, and are in proportion with it...

Q1347: Whether we ought to love the angels out of charity?

As stated above, the friendship of charity is founded upon the fellowship of everlasting happiness, in which men share in common with the angels...

Q1348: Whether we are bound to love the demons out of charity?

As stated above, in the sinner, we are bound, out of charity, to love his nature, but to hate his sin...

Q1349: Whether four things are rightly reckoned as to be loved out of charity, viz. God, our neighbor, our body and ourselves?

As stated above, the friendship of charity is based on the fellowship of happiness...

OF THE ORDER OF CHARITY

Q1350: Whether there is order in charity?

As the Philosopher says, the terms "before" and "after" are used in reference to some principle...

Q1351: Whether God ought to be loved more than our neighbor?

Each kind of friendship regards chiefly the subject in which we chiefly find the good on the fellowship of which that friendship is based: thus civil friendship regards chiefly the ruler of the state, on whom the entire common good of the state depends; hence to him before all, the citizens owe fidelity and obedience...

Q1352: Whether out of charity, man is bound to love God more than himself?

The good we receive from God is twofold, the good of nature, and the good of grace...

Q1353: Whether out of charity, man ought to love himself more than his neighbor?

There are two things in man, his spiritual nature and his corporeal nature...

Q1354: Whether a man ought to love his neighbor more than his own body?

Out of charity we ought to love more that which has more fully the reason for being loved out of charity, as stated above ...

Q1355: Whether we ought to love one neighbor more than another?

There have been two opinions on this question: for some have said that we ought, out of charity, to love all our neighbors equally, as regards our affection, but not as regards the outward effect...

Q1356: Whether we ought to love those who are better more those who are more closely united us?

Every act should be proportionate both to its object and to the agent...

Q1357: Whether we ought to love more those who are connected with us by ties of blood?

As stated above, we ought out of charity to love those who are more closely united to us more, both because our love for them is more intense, and because there are more reasons for loving them...

Q1358: Whether a man ought, out of charity, to love his children more than his father?

As stated above, the degrees of love may be measured from two standpoints...

Q1359: Whether a man ought to love his mother more than his father?

In making such comparisons as this, we must take the answer in the strict sense, so that the present question is whether the father as father, ought to be loved more than the mother as mother...

Q1360: Whether a man ought to love his wife more than his father and mother?

As stated above, the degrees of love may be taken from the good, or from the union between those who love...

Q1361: Whether a man ought to love more his benefactor than one he has benefited?

As stated above, a thing is loved more in two ways: first because it has the character of a more excellent good, secondly by reason of a closer connection...

Q1362: Whether the order of charity endures in heaven?

The order of charity must needs remain in heaven, as regards the love of God above all things...

OF THE PRINCIPLE ACT OF CHARITY, WHICH IS TO LOVE

Q1363: Whether to be loved is more proper to charity than to love?

To love belongs to charity as charity...

Q1364: Whether to love considered as an act of charity is the same as goodwill?

Goodwill properly speaking is that act of the will whereby we wish well to another...

Q1365: Whether out of charity God ought to be loved for Himself?

The preposition "for" denotes a relation of causality...

Q1366: Whether God can be loved immediately in this life?

As stated above, the act of a cognitive power is completed by the thing known being in the knower, whereas the act of an appetitive power consists in the appetite being inclined towards the thing in itself...

Q1367: Whether God can be loved wholly?

Since love may be considered as something between lover and beloved, when we ask whether God can be wholly loved, the question may be understood in three ways, first so that the qualification "wholly" be referred to the thing loved, and thus God is to be loved wholly, since man should love all that pertains to God.

Q1368: Whether in loving God we ought to observe any mode?

As appears from the words of Augustine quoted above mode signifies a determination of measure; which determination is to be found both in the measure and in the thing measured, but not in the same way...

Q1369: Whether it is more meritorious to love an enemy than to love a friend?

God is the reason for our loving our neighbor out of charity, as stated above ...

Q1370: Whether it is more meritorious to love one's neighbor than to love God?

This comparison may be taken in two ways...

OF JOY

Q1371: Whether joy is effected in us by charity?

As stated above, when we were treating of the passions, joy and sorrow proceed from love, but in contrary ways...

Q1372: Whether the spiritual joy, which results from charity, is compatible with an admixture of sorrow?

As stated above, a twofold joy in God arises from charity...

Q1373: Whether the spiritual joy which proceeds from charity, can be filled?

Fulness of joy can be understood in two ways; first, on the part of the thing rejoiced in, so that one rejoice in it as much as it is meet that one should rejoice in it, and thus God's joy alone in Himself is filled, because it is infinite; and this is condignly due to the infinite goodness of God: but the joy of any creature must needs be finite...

Q1374: Whether joy is a virtue?

As stated above, virtue is an operative habit, wherefore by its very nature it has an inclination to a certain act...

OF PEACE

Q1375: Whether peace is the same as concord?

Peace includes concord and adds something thereto...

Q1376: Whether all things desire peace?

From the very fact that a man desires a certain thing it follows that he desires to obtain what he desires, and, in consequence, to remove whatever may be an obstacle to his obtaining it...

Q1377: Whether peace is the proper effect of charity?

Peace implies a twofold union, as stated above ...

Q1378: Whether peace is a virtue?

As stated above, when a number of acts all proceeding uniformly from an agent, follow one from the other, they all arise from the same virtue, nor do they each have a virtue from which they proceed, as may be seen in corporeal things...

OF MERCY

Q1379: Whether evil is properly the motive of mercy?

As Augustine says, mercy is heartfelt sympathy for another's distress, impelling us to succor him if we can...

Q1380: Whether the reason for taking pity is a defect in the person who pities?

Since pity is grief for another's distress, as stated above, from the very fact that a person takes pity on anyone, it follows that another's distress grieves him...

Q1381: Whether mercy is a virtue?

Mercy signifies grief for another's distress...

Q1382: Whether mercy is the greatest of the virtues?

A virtue may take precedence of others in two ways: first, in itself; secondly, in comparison with its subject...

OF BENEFICENCE

Q1383: Whether beneficence is an act of charity?

Beneficence simply means doing good to someone...

Q1384: Whether we ought to do good to all?

As stated above, beneficence is an effect of love in so far as love moves the superior to watch over the inferior...

Q1385: Whether we ought to do good to those rather who are more closely united to us?

Grace and virtue imitate the order of nature, which is established by Divine wisdom...

Q1386: Whether beneficence is a special virtue?

Virtues differ according to the different aspects of their objects...

OF ALMSDEEDS

Q1387: Whether almsgiving is an act of charity?

External acts belong to that virtue which regards the motive for doing those acts...

Q1388: Whether the different kinds of almsdeeds are suitably enumerated?

The aforesaid distinction of almsdeeds is suitably taken from the various needs of our neighbor: some of which affect the soul, and are relieved by spiritual almsdeeds, while others affect the body, and are relieved by corporal almsdeeds...

Q1389: Whether corporal alms are of more account than spiritual alms?

There are two ways of comparing these almsdeeds...

Q1390: Whether corporal almsdeeds have a spiritual effect?

Corporal almsdeeds may be considered in three ways...

Q1391: Whether almsgiving is a matter of precept?

As love of our neighbor is a matter of precept, whatever is a necessary condition to the love of our neighbor is a matter of precept also...

Q1392: Whether one ought to give alms out of what one needs?

A thing is necessary in two ways: first, because without it something is impossible, and it is altogether wrong to give alms out of what is necessary to us in this sense; for instance, if a man found himself in the presence of a case of urgency, and had merely sufficient to support himself and his children, or others under his charge, he would be throwing away his life and that of others if he were to give away in alms, what was then necessary to him...

Q1393: Whether one may give alms out of ill-gotten goods?

A thing may be ill-gotten in three ways...

Q1394: Whether one who is under another's power can give alms?

Anyone who is under another's power must, as such, be ruled in accordance with the power of his superior: for the natural order demands that the inferior should be ruled according to its superior...

Q1395: Whether one ought to give alms to those rather who are more closely united to us?

As Augustine says, "it falls to us by lot, as it were, to have to look to the welfare of those who are more closely united to us"...

Q1396: Whether alms should be given in abundance?

Alms may be considered abundant in relation either to the giver, or to the recipient: in relation to the giver, when that which a man gives is great as compared with his means...

OF FRATERNAL CORRECTION

Q1397: Whether fraternal correction is an act of charity?

The correction of the wrongdoer is a remedy which should be employed against a man's sin...

Q1398: Whether fraternal correction is a matter of precept?

Fraternal correction is a matter of precept...

Q1399: Whether fraternal correction belongs only to prelates?

As stated above, correction is twofold...

Q1400: Whether a man is bound to correct his prelate?

A subject is not competent to administer to his prelate the correction which is an act of justice through the coercive nature of punishment: but the fraternal correction which is an act of charity is within the competency of everyone in respect of any person towards whom he is bound by charity, provided there be something in that person which requires correction.

Q1401: Whether a sinner ought to reprove a wrongdoer?

As stated above, to correct a wrongdoer belongs to a man, in so far as his reason is gifted with right judgment...

Q1402: Whether one ought to forbear from correcting someone, through fear lest he become worse?

As stated above the correction of the wrongdoer is twofold...

Q1403: Whether the precept of fraternal correction demands that a private admonition should precede denunciation?

With regard to the public denunciation of sins it is necessary to make a distinction: because sins may be either public or secret...

Q1404: Whether before the public denunciation witnesses ought to be brought forward?

The right way to go from one extreme to another is to pass through the middle space...

OF HATRED

Q1405: Whether it is possible for anyone to hate God?

As shown above, hatred is a movement of the appetitive power, which power is not set in motion save by something apprehended...

Q1406: Whether hatred of God is the greatest of sins?

The defect in sin consists in its aversion from God, as stated above : and this aversion would not have the character of guilt, were it not voluntary...

Q1407: Whether hatred of one's neighbor is always a sin?

Hatred is opposed to love, as stated above ; so that hatred of a thing is evil according as the love of that thing is good...

Q1408: Whether hatred of our neighbor is the most grievous sin against our neighbor?

Sins committed against our neighbor are evil on two counts; first by reason of the disorder in the person who sins, secondly by reason of the hurt inflicted on the person sinned against...

Q1409: Whether hatred is a capital sin?

As stated above, a capital vice is one from which other vices arise most frequently...

Q1410: Whether hatred arises from envy?

As stated above, hatred of his neighbor is a man's last step in the path of sin, because it is opposed to the love which he naturally has for his neighbor...

OF SLOTH

Q1411: Whether sloth is a sin?

Sloth, according to Damascene is an oppressive sorrow, which, to wit, so weighs upon man's mind, that he wants to do nothing; thus acid things are also cold...

Q1412: Whether sloth is a special vice?

Since sloth is sorrow for spiritual good, if we take spiritual good in a general way, sloth will not be a special vice, because, as stated above, every vice shuns the spiritual good of its opposite virtue...

Q1413: Whether sloth is a mortal sin?

As stated above, mortal sin is so called because it destroys the spiritual life which is the effect of charity, whereby God dwells in us...

Q1414: Whether sloth should be accounted a capital vice?

As stated above, a capital vice is one which easily gives rise to others as being their final cause...

OF ENVY

Q1415: Whether envy is a kind of sorrow?

The object of a man's sorrow is his own evil...

Q1416: Whether envy is a sin?

As stated above, envy is sorrow for another's good...

Q1417: Whether envy is a mortal sin?

Envy is a mortal sin, in respect of its genus...

Q1418: Whether envy is a capital vice?

Just as sloth is grief for a Divine spiritual good, so envy is grief for our neighbor's good...

OF DISCORD, WHICH IS CONTRARY TO PEACE

Q1419: Whether discord is a sin?

Discord is opposed to concord...

Q1420: Whether discord is a daughter of vainglory?

Discord denotes a certain disunion of wills, in so far, to wit, as one man's will holds fast to one thing, while the other man's will holds fast to something else...

OF CONTENTION

Q1421: Whether contention is a mortal sin?

To contend is to tend against some one...

Q1422: Whether contention is a daughter of vainglory?

As stated above, discord is a daughter of vainglory, because each of the disaccording parties clings to his own opinion, rather than acquiesce with the other...

OF SCHISM

Q1423: Whether schism is a special sin?

As Isidore says, schism takes its name "from being a scission of minds," and scission is opposed to unity...

Q1424: Whether schism is a graver sin than unbelief?

The gravity of a sin can be considered in two ways: first, according to the species of that sin, secondly, according to its circumstances...

Q1425: Whether schismatics have any power?

Spiritual power is twofold, the one sacramental, the other a power of jurisdiction...

Q1426: Whether it is right that schismatics should be punished with excommunication?

According to Wis. 11:11, "By what things a man sinneth, by the same also he should be punished" ...

OF WAR

Q1427: Whether it is always sinful to wage war?

In order for a war to be just, three things are necessary...

Q1428: Whether it is lawful for clerics and bishops to fight?

Several things are requisite for the good of a human society: and a number of things are done better and quicker by a number of persons than by one, as the Philosopher observes, while certain occupations are so inconsistent with one another, that they cannot be fittingly exercised at the same time; wherefore those who are deputed to important duties are forbidden to occupy themselves with things of small importance...

Q1429: Whether it is lawful to lay ambushes in war?

The object of laying ambushes is in order to deceive the enemy...

Q1430: Whether it is lawful to fight on holy days?

The observance of holy days is no hindrance to those things which are ordained to man's safety, even that of his body...

OF STRIFE

Q1431: Whether strife is always a sin?

While contention implies a contradiction of words, strife denotes a certain contradiction of deeds...

Q1432: Whether strife is a daughter of anger?

As stated above, strife denotes an antagonism extending to deeds, when one man designs to harm another...

OF SEDITION

Q1433: Whether sedition is a special sin distinct from other sins?

Sedition is a special sin, having something in common with war and strife, and differing somewhat from them...

Q1434: Whether sedition is always a mortal sin?

As stated above, sedition is contrary to the unity of the multitude, viz. the people of a city or kingdom...

OF SCANDAL

Q1435: Whether scandal is fittingly defined as being something less rightly said or done that occasions spiritual downfall?

As Jerome observes the Greek {skandalon} may be rendered offense, downfall, or a stumbling against something...

Q1436: Whether scandal is a sin?

As already said, scandal is of two kinds, passive scandal in the person scandalized, and active scandal in the person who gives scandal, and so occasions a spiritual downfall...

Q1437: Whether scandal is a special sin?

As stated above, scandal is twofold, active and passive...

Q1438: Whether scandal is a mortal sin?

As stated above, scandal denotes a stumbling whereby a person is disposed to a spiritual downfall...

Q1439: Whether passive scandal may happen even to the perfect?

Passive scandal implies that the mind of the person who takes scandal is unsettled in its adherence to good...

Q1440: Whether active scandal can be found in the perfect?

Active scandal, properly so called, occurs when a man says or does a thing which in itself is of a nature to occasion another's spiritual downfall, and that is only when what he says or does is inordinate...

Q1441: Whether spiritual goods should be foregone on account of scandal?

Whereas scandal is twofold, active and passive, the present question does not apply to active scandal, for since active scandal is "something said or done less rightly," nothing ought to be done that implies active scandal...

Q1442: Whether temporal goods should be foregone on account of scandal?

A distinction must be made in temporal goods: for either they are ours, or they are consigned to us to take care of them for someone else; thus the goods of the Church are consigned to prelates, and the goods of the community are entrusted to all such persons as have authority over the common weal...

OF THE PRECEPTS OF CHARITY

Q1443: Whether any precept should be given about charity?

As stated above, a precept implies the notion of something due...

Q1444: Whether there should have been given two precepts of charity?

As stated above when we were treating of the commandments, the precepts are to the Law what propositions are to speculative sciences, for in these latter, the conclusions are virtually contained in the first principles...

Q1445: Whether two precepts of charity suffice?

Charity, as stated above, is a kind of friendship...

Q1446: Whether it is fittingly commanded that man should love God with his whole heart?

Since precepts are given about acts of virtue, an act is a matter of precept according as it is an act of virtue...

Q1447: Whether to the words, "Thou shalt love the Lord thy God with thy whole heart," it was fitting to add "and with thy whole soul, and with thy whole strength"?

This precept is differently worded in various places: for, as we said in the first objection, in Dt. 6 three points are mentioned: "with thy whole heart," and "with thy whole soul," and "with thy whole strength"...

Q1448: Whether it is possible in this life to fulfil this precept of the love of God?

A precept can be fulfilled in two ways; perfectly, and imperfectly...

Q1449: Whether the precept of love of our neighbor is fittingly expressed?

This precept is fittingly expressed, for it indicates both the reason for loving and the mode of love...

Q1450: Whether the order of charity is included in the precept?

As stated above, the mode which is essential to an act of virtue comes under the precept which prescribes that virtuous act...

OF THE GIFT OF WISDOM

Q1451: Whether wisdom should be reckoned among the gifts of the Holy Ghost?

According to the Philosopher, it belongs to wisdom to consider the highest cause...

Q1452: Whether wisdom is in the intellect as its subject?

As stated above, wisdom denotes a certain rectitude of judgment according to the Eternal Law...

Q1453: Whether wisdom is merely speculative, or practical also?

As Augustine says, the higher part of the reason is the province of wisdom, while the lower part is the domain of knowledge...

Q1454: Whether wisdom can be without grace, and with mortal sin?

The wisdom which is a gift of the Holy Ghost, as stated above, enables us to judge aright of Divine things, or of other things according to Divine rules, by reason of a certain connaturalness or union with Divine things, which is the effect of charity, as stated above ...

Q1455: Whether wisdom is in all who have grace?

The wisdom of which we are speaking, as stated above, denotes a certain rectitude of judgment in the contemplation and consultation of Divine things, and as to both of these men obtain various degrees of wisdom through union with Divine things...

Q1456: Whether the seventh beatitude corresponds to the gift of wisdom?

The seventh beatitude is fittingly ascribed to the gift of wisdom, both as to the merit and as to the reward...

OF FOLLY WHICH IS OPPOSED TO WISDOM

Q1457: Whether folly is contrary to wisdom?

Stultitia seems to take its name from "stupor"; wherefore Isidore says : "A fool is one who through dullness remains unmoved"...

Q1458: Whether folly is a sin?

Folly, as stated above, denotes dullness of sense in judging, and chiefly as regards the highest cause, which is the last end and the sovereign good...

Q1459: Whether folly is a daughter of lust?

As already stated, folly, in so far as it is a sin, is caused by the spiritual sense being dulled, so as to be incapable of judging spiritual things...

TREATISE ON THE CARDINAL VIRTUES

OF PRUDENCE, CONSIDERED IN ITSELF

Q1460: Whether prudence is in the cognitive or in the appetitive faculty?

As Isidore says : "A prudent man is one who sees as it were from afar, for his sight is keen, and he foresees the event of uncertainties"...

Q1461: Whether prudence belongs to the practical reason alone or also to the speculative reason?

According to the Philosopher "a prudent man is one who is capable of taking good counsel"...

Q1462: Whether prudence takes cognizance of singulars?

As stated above, to prudence belongs not only the consideration of the reason, but also the application to action, which is the end of the practical reason...

Q1463: Whether prudence is a virtue?

As stated above when we were treating of virtues in general, "virtue is that which makes its possessor good, and his work good likewise"...

Q1464: Whether prudence is a special virtue?

Since acts and habits take their species from their objects, as shown above, any habit that has a corresponding special object, distinct from other objects, must needs be a special habit, and if it be a good habit, it must be a special virtue...

Q1465: Whether prudence appoints the end to moral virtues?

The end of moral virtues is human good...

Q1466: Whether it belongs to prudence to find the mean in moral virtues?

The proper end of each moral virtue consists precisely in conformity with right reason...

Q1467: Whether command is the chief act of prudence?

Prudence is "right reason applied to action," as stated above ...

Q1468: Whether solicitude belongs to prudence?

According to Isidore, a man is said to be solicitous through being shrewd and alert, in so far as a man through a certain shrewdness of mind is on the alert to do whatever has to be done...

Q1469: Whether solicitude belongs to prudence?

According to the Philosopher some have held that prudence does not extend to the common good, but only to the good of the individual, and this because they thought that man is not bound to seek other than his own good...

Q1470: Whether prudence about one's own good is specifically the same as that which extends to the common good?

As stated above, the species of habits differ according to the difference of object considered in its formal aspect...

Q1471: Whether prudence is in subjects, or only in their rulers?

Prudence is in the reason...

Q1472: Whether prudence can be in sinners?

Prudence is threefold...

Q1473: Whether prudence is in all who have grace?

The virtues must needs be connected together, so that whoever has one has all, as stated above ...

Q1474: Whether prudence is in us by nature?

As shown above, prudence includes knowledge both of universals, and of the singular matters of action to which prudence applies the universal principles...

Q1475: Whether prudence can be lost through forgetfulness?

Forgetfulness regards knowledge only, wherefore one can forget art and science, so as to lose them altogether, because they belong to the reason...

OF THE PARTS OF PRUDENCE

Q1476: Whether three parts of prudence are fittingly assigned?

Parts are of three kinds, namely, "integral," as wall, roof, and foundations are parts of a house; "subjective," as ox and lion are parts of animal; and "potential," as the nutritive and sensitive powers are parts of the soul...

OF EACH QUASI-INTEGRAL PART OF PRUDENCE

Q1477: Whether memory is a part of prudence?

Prudence regards contingent matters of action, as stated above ...

Q1478: Whether understanding* is a part of prudence?

Understanding denotes here, not the intellectual power, but the right estimate about some final principle, which is taken as self-evident: thus we are said to understand the first principles of demonstrations...

Q1479: Whether docility should be accounted a part of prudence?

As stated above prudence is concerned with particular matters of action, and since such matters are of infinite variety, no one man can consider them all sufficiently; nor can this be done quickly, for it requires length of time...

Q1480: Whether shrewdness is part of prudence?

Prudence consists in a right estimate about matters of action...

Q1481: Whether reason should be reckoned a part of prudence?

The work of prudence is to take good counsel, as stated in Ethic. vi, 7...

Q1482: Whether foresight* should be accounted a part of prudence?

As stated above, prudence is properly about the means to an end, and its proper work is to set them in due order to the end...

Q1483: Whether circumspection can be a part of prudence?

As stated above, it belongs to prudence chiefly to direct something aright to an end; and this is not done aright unless both the end be good, and the means good and suitable.

Q1484: Whether caution should be reckoned a part of prudence?

The things with which prudence is concerned, are contingent matters of action, wherein, even as false is found with true, so is evil mingled with good, on account of the great variety of these matters of action, wherein good is often hindered by evil, and evil has the appearance of good...

OF THE SUBJECTIVE PARTS OF PRUDENCE

Q1485: Whether a species of prudence is regnative?

As stated above, it belongs to prudence to govern and command, so that wherever in human acts we find a special kind of governance and command, there must be a special kind of prudence...

Q1486: Whether political prudence is fittingly accounted a part of prudence?

A slave is moved by his master, and a subject by his ruler, by command, but otherwise than as irrational and inanimate beings are set in motion by their movers...

Q1487: Whether a part of prudence should be reckoned to be domestic?

Different aspects of an object, in respect of universality and particularity, or of totality and partiality, diversify arts and virtues; and in respect of such diversity one act of virtue is principal as compared with another...

Q1488: Whether military prudence should be reckoned a part of prudence?

Whatever things are done according to art or reason, should be made to conform to those which are in accordance with nature, and are established by the Divine Reason...

OF THE VIRTUES WHICH ARE CONNECTED WITH PRUDENCE

Q1489: Whether {euboulia} is a virtue?

As stated above the nature of a human virtue consists in making a human act good...

Q1490: Whether {euboulia} is a special virtue, distinct from prudence?

As stated above, virtue is properly directed to an act which it renders good; and consequently virtues must differ according to different acts, especially when there is a different kind of goodness in the acts...

Q1491: Whether {synesis} is a virtue?

{synesis} signifies a right judgment, not indeed about speculative matters, but about particular practical matters, about which also is prudence...

Q1492: Whether {gnome} is a special virtue?

Cognitive habits differ according to higher and lower principles: thus in speculative matters wisdom considers higher principles than science does, and consequently is distinguished from it; and so must it be also in practical matters...

OF THE GIFT OF COUNSEL

Q1493: Whether counsel should be reckoned among the gifts of the Holy Ghost?

As stated above, the gifts of the Holy Ghost are dispositions whereby the soul is rendered amenable to the motion of the Holy Ghost...

Q1494: Whether the gift of counsel corresponds to the virtue of prudence?

A lower principle of movement is helped chiefly, and is perfected through being moved by a higher principle of movement, as a body through being moved by a spirit...

Q1495: Whether the gift of counsel remains in heaven?

As stated above, the gifts of the Holy Ghost are connected with the motion of the rational creature by God...

Q1496: Whether the fifth beatitude, which is that of mercy, corresponds to the gift of counsel?

Counsel is properly about things useful for an end...

OF IMPRUDENCE

Q1497: Whether imprudence is a sin?

Imprudence may be taken in two ways, first, as a privation, secondly, as a contrary...

Q1498: Whether imprudence is a special sin?

A vice or sin may be styled general in two ways; first, absolutely, because, to wit, it is general in respect of all sins; secondly, because it is general in respect of certain vices, which are its species...

Q1499: Whether precipitation is a sin included in imprudence?

Precipitation is ascribed metaphorically to acts of the soul, by way of similitude to bodily movement...

Q1500: Whether thoughtlessness is a special sin included in prudence?

Thought signifies the act of the intellect in considering the truth about. something...

Q1501: Whether inconstancy is a vice contained under prudence?

Inconstancy denotes withdrawal from a definite good purpose...

Q1502: Whether the aforesaid vices arise from lust?

As the Philosopher states "pleasure above all corrupts the estimate of prudence," and chiefly sexual pleasure which absorbs the mind, and draws it to sensible delight...

OF NEGLIGENCE

Q1503: Whether negligence is a special sin?

Negligence denotes lack of due solicitude...

Q1504: Whether negligence is opposed to prudence?

Negligence is directly opposed to solicitude...

Q1505: Whether negligence can be a mortal sin?

As stated above, negligence arises out of a certain remissness of the will, the result being a lack of solicitude on the part of the reason in commanding what it should command, or as it should command...

OF VICES OPPOSED TO PRUDENCE BY WAY OF RESEMBLANCE

Q1506: Whether prudence of the flesh is a sin?

As stated above, prudence regards things which are directed to the end of life as a whole...

Q1507: Whether prudence of the flesh is a mortal sin?

As stated above, a man is said to be prudent in two ways...

Q1508: Whether craftiness is a special sin?

Prudence is "right reason applied to action," just as science is "right reason applied to knowledge"...

Q1509: Whether guile is a sin pertaining to craftiness?

As stated above, it belongs to craftiness to adopt ways that are not true but counterfeit and apparently true, in order to attain some end either good or evil...

Q1510: Whether fraud pertains to craftiness?

Just as "guile" consists in the execution of craftiness, so also does "fraud"...

Q1511: Whether it is lawful to be solicitous about temporal matters?

Solicitude denotes an earnest endeavor to obtain something...

Q1512: Whether we should be solicitous about the future?

No work can be virtuous, unless it be vested with its due circumstances, and among these is the due time, according to Eccles. 8:6, "There is a time and opportunity for every business"; which applies not only to external deeds but also to internal solicitude...

Q1513: Whether these vices arise from covetousness?

As stated above, carnal prudence and craftiness, as well as guile and fraud, bear a certain resemblance to prudence in some kind of use of the reason...

OF THE PRECEPTS RELATING TO PRUDENCE

Q1514: Whether the precepts of the decalogue should have included a precept of prudence?

As stated above when we were treating of precepts, the commandments of the decalogue being given to the whole people, are a matter of common knowledge to all, as coming under the purview of natural reason...

Q1515: Whether the prohibitive precepts relating to the vices opposed to prudence are fittingly propounded in the Old Law?

As stated above, justice, above all, regards the aspect of something due, which is a necessary condition for a precept, because justice tends to render that which is due to another, as we shall state further on ...

OF RIGHT

Q1516: Whether right is the object of justice?

It is proper to justice, as compared with the other virtues, to direct man in his relations with others: because it denotes a kind of equality, as its very name implies; indeed we are wont to say that things are adjusted when they are made equal, for equality is in reference of one thing to some other...

Q1517: Whether right is fittingly divided into natural right and positive right?

As stated above the "right" or the "just" is a work that is adjusted to another person according to some kind of equality...

Q1518: Whether the right of nations is the same as the natural right?

As stated above, the natural right or just is that which by its very nature is adjusted to or commensurate with another person...

Q1519: Whether paternal right and right of dominion should be distinguished as special species?

Right or just depends on commensuration with another person...

OF JUSTICE

Q1520: Whether justice is fittingly defined as being the perpetual and constant will to render to each one his right?

The aforesaid definition of justice is fitting if understood aright...

Q1521: Whether justice is always towards one another?

As stated above since justice by its name implies equality, it denotes essentially relation to another, for a thing is equal, not to itself, but to another...

Q1522: Whether justice is a virtue?

A human virtue is one "which renders a human act and man himself good", and this can be applied to justice...

Q1523: Whether justice is in the will as its subject?

The subject of a virtue is the power whose act that virtue aims at rectifying...

Q1524: Whether justice is a general virtue?

Justice, as stated above directs man in his relations with other men...

Q1525: Whether justice, as a general virtue, is essentially the same as all virtue?

A thing is said to be "general" in two ways...

Q1526: Whether there is a particular besides a general justice?

As stated above, legal justice is not essentially the same as every virtue, and besides legal justice which directs man immediately to the common good, there is a need for other virtues to direct him immediately in matters relating to particular goods: and these virtues may be relative to himself or to another individual person...

Q1527: Whether particular justice has a special matter?

Whatever can be rectified by reason is the matter of moral virtue, for this is defined in reference to right reason, according to the Philosopher ...

Q1528: Whether justice is about the passions?

The true answer to this question may be gathered from a twofold source...

Q1529: Whether the mean of justice is the real mean?

As stated above, the other moral virtues are chiefly concerned with the passions, the regulation of which is gauged entirely by a comparison with the very man who is the subject of those passions, in so far as his anger and desire are vested with their various due circumstances...

Q1530: Whether the act of justice is to render to each one his own?

As stated above, the matter of justice is an external operation in so far as either it or the thing we use by it is made proportionate to some other person to whom we are related by justice...

Q1531: Whether justice stands foremost among all moral virtues?

If we speak of legal justice, it is evident that it stands foremost among all the moral virtues, for as much as the common good transcends the individual good of one person...

OF INJUSTICE

Q1532: Whether injustice is a special virtue?

Injustice is twofold...

Q1533: Whether a man is called unjust through doing an unjust thing?

Even as the object of justice is something equal in external things, so too the object of injustice is something unequal, through more or less being assigned to some person than is due to him...

Q1534: Whether we can suffer injustice willingly?

Action by its very nature proceeds from an agent, whereas passion as such is from another: wherefore the same thing in the same respect cannot be both agent and patient, as stated in Phys. iii, 1; viii, 5...

Q1535: Whether whoever does an injustice sins mortally?

As stated above, when we were treating of the distinction of sins, a mortal sin is one that is contrary to charity which gives life to the soul...

OF JUDGMENT

Q1536: Whether judgment is an act of justice?

Judgment properly denotes the act of a judge as such...

Q1537: Whether it is lawful to judge?

Judgment is lawful in so far as it is an act of justice...

Q1538: Whether it is unlawful to form a judgment from suspicions?

As Tully says, suspicion denotes evil thinking based on slight indications, and this is due to three causes...

Q1539: Whether doubts should be interpreted for the best?

As stated above, things from the very fact that a man thinks ill of another without sufficient cause, he injures and despises him...

Q1540: Whether we should always judge according to the written law?

As stated above, judgment is nothing else but a decision or determination of what is just...

Q1541: Whether judgment is rendered perverse by being usurped?

Since judgment should be pronounced according to the written law, as stated above, he that pronounces judgment, interprets, in a way, the letter of the law, by applying it to some particular case...

OF THE PARTS OF JUSTICE

Q1542: Whether two species of justice are suitably assigned, viz. commutative and distributive?

As stated above, particular justice is directed to the private individual, who is compared to the community as a part to the whole...

Q1543: Whether the mean is to be observed in the same way in distributive as in commutative justice?

As stated above, in distributive justice something is given to a private individual, in so far as what belongs to the whole is due to the part, and in a quantity that is proportionate to the importance of the position of that part in respect of the whole...

Q1544: Whether there is a different matter for both kinds of justice?

As stated above, justice is about certain external operations, namely distribution and commutation...

Q1545: Whether the just is absolutely the same as retaliation?

Retaliation denotes equal passion repaid for previous action; and the expression applies most properly to injurious passions and actions, whereby a man harms the person of his neighbor; for instance if a man strike, that he be struck back...

OF RESTITUTION

Q1546: Whether restitution is an act of commutative justice?

To restore is seemingly the same as to reinstate a person in the possession or dominion of his thing, so that in restitution we consider the equality of justice attending the payment of one thing for another, and this belongs to commutative justice...

Q1547: Whether restitution of what has been taken away is necessary for salvation?

Restitution as stated above is an act of commutative justice, and this demands a certain equality...

Q1548: Whether it suffices to restore the exact amount taken?

When a man takes another's thing unjustly, two things must be considered...

Q1549: Whether a man is bound to restore what he has not taken?

Whoever brings a loss upon another person, seemingly, takes from him the amount of the loss, since, according to the Philosopher loss is so called from a man having "less"* than his due...

Q1550: Whether restitution must always be made to the person from whom a thing has been taken?

Restitution re-establishes the equality of commutative justice, which equality consists in the equalizing of thing to thing, as stated above ...

Q1551: Whether he that has taken a thing is always bound to restitution?

With regard to a man who has taken another's property, two points must be considered: the thing taken, and the taking...

Q1552: Whether restitution is binding on those who have not taken?

As stated above, a person is bound to restitution not only on account of someone else's property which he has taken, but also on account of the injurious taking...

Q1553: Whether a man is bound to immediate restitution, or may he put it off?

Even as it is a sin against justice to take another's property, so also is it to withhold it, since, to withhold the property of another against the owner's will, is to deprive him of the use of what belongs to him, and to do him an injury...

VICES OPPOSED TO DISTRIBUTIVE JUSTICE

Q1554: Whether respect of persons is a sin?

Respect of persons is opposed to distributive justice...

Q1555: Whether respect of persons takes place in the dispensation of spiritual goods?

As stated above, respect of persons is a sin, in so far as it is contrary to justice...

Q1556: Whether respect of persons takes place in showing honor and respect?

To honor a person is to recognize him as having virtue, wherefore virtue alone is the due cause of a person being honored...

Q1557: Whether the sin of respect of persons takes place in judicial sentences?

As stated above, judgment is an act of justice, in as much as the judge restores to the equality of justice, those things which may cause an opposite inequality...

OF MURDER

Q1558: Whether it is unlawful to kill any living thing?

There is no sin in using a thing for the purpose for which it is...

Q1559: Whether it is lawful to kill sinners?

As stated above, it is lawful to kill dumb animals, in so far as they are naturally directed to man's use, as the imperfect is directed to the perfect...

Q1560: Whether it is lawful for a private individual to kill a man who has sinned?

As stated above, it is lawful to kill an evildoer in so far as it is directed to the welfare of the whole community, so that it belongs to him alone who has charge of the community's welfare...

Q1561: Whether it is lawful for clerics to kill evil-doers?

It is unlawful for clerics to kill, for two reasons...

Q1562: Whether it is lawful to kill oneself?

It is altogether unlawful to kill oneself, for three reasons...

Q1563: Whether it is lawful to kill the innocent?

An individual man may be considered in two ways: first, in himself; secondly, in relation to something else...

Q1564: Whether it is lawful to kill a man in self-defense?

Nothing hinders one act from having two effects, only one of which is intended, while the other is beside the intention...

According to the Philosopher "chance is a cause that acts beside one's intention"...

OF OTHER INJURIES COMMITTED ON THE PERSON

Q1565: Whether in some cases it may be lawful to maim anyone?

Since a member is part of the whole human body, it is for the sake of the whole, as the imperfect for the perfect...

Q1566: Whether it is lawful for parents to strike their children, or masters their slaves?

Harm is done a body by striking it, yet not so as when it is maimed: since maiming destroys the body's integrity, while a blow merely affects the sense with pain, wherefore it causes much less harm than cutting off a member...

Q1567: Whether it is lawful to imprison a man?

In the goods three things may be considered in due order...

Q1568: Whether the sin is aggravated by the fact that the aforesaid injuries are perpetrated on those who are connected with others?

Other things being equal, an injury is a more grievous sin according as it affects more persons; and hence it is that it is a more grievous sin to strike or injure a person in authority than a private individual, because it conduces to the injury of the whole community, as stated above ...

OF THEFT AND ROBBERY

Q1569: Whether it is natural for man to possess external things?

External things can be considered in two ways...

Q1570: Whether it is lawful for a man to possess a thing as his own?

Two things are competent to man in respect of exterior things...

Q1571: Whether the essence of theft consists in taking another's thing secretly?

Three things combine together to constitute theft...

Q1572: Whether theft and robbery are sins of different species?

Theft and robbery are vices contrary to justice, in as much as one man does another an injustice...

Q1573: Whether theft is always a sin?

If anyone consider what is meant by theft, he will find that it is sinful on two counts...

Q1574: Whether theft is a mortal sin?

As stated above, a mortal sin is one that is contrary to charity as the spiritual life of the soul...

Q1575: Whether it is lawful to steal through stress of need?

Things which are of human right cannot derogate from natural right or Divine right...

Q1576: Whether robbery may be committed without sin?

Robbery implies a certain violence and coercion employed in taking unjustly from a man that which is his...

Q1577: Whether theft is a more grievous sin than robbery?

Robbery and theft are sinful, as stated above, on account of the involuntariness on the part of the person from whom something is taken: yet so that in theft the involuntariness is due to ignorance, whereas in robbery it is due to violence...

OF THE INJUSTICE OF A JUDGE, IN JUDGING

Q1578: Whether a man can justly judge one who is not subject to his jurisdiction?

A judge's sentence is like a particular law regarding some particular fact...

Q1579: Whether it is lawful for a judge to pronounce judgment against the truth that he knows, on account of evidence to the contrary?

As stated above it is the duty of a judge to pronounce judgment in as much as he exercises public authority, wherefore his judgment should be based on information acquired by him, not from his knowledge as a private individual, but from what he knows as a public person...

Q1580: Whether a judge may condemn a man who is not accused?

A judge is an interpreter of justice...

Q1581: Whether the judge can lawfully remit the punishment?

As may be gathered from what has been said, with regard to the question in point, two things may be observed in connection with a judge...

OF MATTERS CONCERNING UNJUST ACCUSATION

Q1582: Whether a man is bound to accuse?

As stated above, the difference between denunciation and accusation is that in denunciation we aim at a brother's amendment, whereas in accusation we intend the punishment of his crime...

Q1583: Whether it is necessary for the accusation to be made in writing?

As stated above, when the process in a criminal case goes by way of accusation, the accuser is in the position of a party, so that the judge stands between the accuser and the accused for the purpose of the trial of justice, wherein it behooves one to proceed on certainties, as far as possible...

Q1584: Whether an accusation is rendered unjust by calumny, collusion or evasion?

As stated above, accusation is ordered for the common good which it aims at procuring by means of knowledge of the crime...

Q1585: Whether an accuser who fails to prove his indictment is bound to the punishment of retaliation?

As stated above, in a case, where the procedure is by way of accusation, the accuser holds the position of a party aiming at the punishment of the accused...

OF SINS COMMITTED AGAINST JUSTICE ON THE PART OF THE DEFENDANT

Q1586: Whether one can, without a mortal sin, deny the truth which would lead to one's condemnation?

Whoever acts against the due order of justice, sins mortally, as stated above ...

Q1587: Whether it is lawful for the accused to defend himself with calumnies?

It is one thing to withhold the truth, and another to utter a falsehood...

Q1588: Whether it is lawful for the accused to escape judgment by appealing?

There are two motives for which a man appeals...

Q1589: Whether a man who is condemned to death may lawfully defend himself if he can?

A man may be condemned to death in two ways...

OF INJUSTICE WITH REGARD TO THE PERSON OF THE WITNESS

Q1590: Whether a man is bound to give evidence?

We must make a distinction in the matter of giving evidence: because sometimes a certain man's evidence is necessary, and sometimes not...

Q1591: Whether the evidence of two or three persons suffices?

According to the Philosopher, "we must not expect to find certitude equally in every matter"...

Q1592: Whether a man's evidence can be rejected without any fault of his?

As stated above, the authority of evidence is not infallible but probable; and consequently the evidence for one side is weakened by whatever strengthens the probability of the other...

Q1593: Whether it is always a mortal sin to give false evidence?

False evidence has a threefold deformity...

OF INJUSTICE IN JUDGMENT ON THE PART OF COUNSEL

Q1594: Whether an advocate is bound to defend the suits of the poor?

Since defense of the poor man's suit belongs to the works of mercy, the answer to this inquiry is the same as the one given above with regard to the other works of mercy ...

Q1595: Whether it is fitting that the law should debar certain persons from the office of advocate?

In two ways a person is debarred from performing a certain act: first because it is impossible to him, secondly because it is unbecoming to him: but, whereas the man to whom a certain act is impossible, is absolutely debarred from performing it, he to whom an act is unbecoming is not debarred altogether, since necessity may do away with its unbecomingness...

Q1596: Whether an advocate sins by defending an unjust cause?

It is unlawful to cooperate in an evil deed, by counseling, helping, or in any way consenting, because to counsel or assist an action is, in a way, to do it, and the Apostle says that "they . . . are worthy of death, not only they that do" a sin, "but they also that consent to them that do" it...

Q1597: Whether it is lawful for an advocate to take a fee for pleading?

A man may justly receive payment for granting what he is not bound to grant...

OF REVILING

Q1598: Whether reviling consists in words?

Reviling denotes the dishonoring of a person, and this happens in two ways: for since honor results from excellence, one person dishonors another, first, by depriving him of the excellence for which he is honored...

Q1599: Whether reviling or railing is a mortal sin?

As stated above, words are injurious to other persons, not as sounds, but as signs, and this signification depends on the speaker's inward intention...

Q1600: Whether one ought to suffer oneself to be reviled?

Just as we need patience in things done against us, so do we need it in those said against us...

Q1601: Whether reviling arises from anger?

While one sin may arise from various causes, it is nevertheless said to have its source chiefly in that one from which it is wont to arise most frequently, through being closely connected with its end...

OF BACKBITING

Q1602: Whether backbiting is suitably defined as the blackening of another's character by secret words?

Just as one man injures another by deed in two ways---openly, as by robbery or by doing him any kind of violence---and secretly, as by theft, or by a crafty blow, so again one man injures another by words in two ways---in one way, openly, and this is done by reviling him, as stated above ---and in another way secretly, and this is done by backbiting...

Q1603: Whether backbiting is a mortal sin?

As stated above, sins of word should be judged chiefly from the intention of the speaker...

Q1604: Whether backbiting is the gravest of all sins committed against one's neighbor?

The essential gravity of sins committed against one's neighbor must be weighed by the injury they inflict on him, since it is thence that they derive their sinful nature...

Q1605: Whether it is a grave sin for the listener to suffer the backbiter?

According to the Apostle, they "are worthy of death . . . not only they that" commit sins, "but they also that consent to them that do them"...

OF TALE-BEARING

Q1606: Whether tale-bearing is a sin distinct from backbiting?

The tale-bearer and the backbiter agree in matter, and also in form or mode of speaking, since they both speak evil secretly of their neighbor: and for this reason these terms are sometimes used one for the other...

Q1607: Whether backbiting is a graver sin than tale-bearing?

As stated above, sins against one's neighbor are the more grievous, according as they inflict a greater injury on him: and an injury is so much the greater, according to the greatness of the good which it takes away...

OF DERISION

Q1608: Whether derision is a special sin distinct from those already mentioned?

As stated above, sins of word should be weighed chiefly by the intention of the speaker, wherefore these sins are differentiated according to the various intentions of those who speak against another...

Q1609: Whether derision can be a mortal sin?

The object of derision is always some evil or defect...

OF CURSING

Q1610: Whether it is lawful to curse anyone?

To curse is the same as to speak ill ...

Q1611: Whether it is lawful to curse an irrational creature?

Benediction and malediction, properly speaking, regard things to which good or evil may happen, viz. rational creatures: while good and evil are said to happen to irrational creatures in relation to the rational creature for whose sake they are...

Q1612: Whether cursing is a mortal sin?

The evil words of which we are speaking now are those whereby evil is uttered against someone by way of command or desire...

Q1613: Whether cursing is a graver sin than backbiting?

As stated earlier, evil is twofold, evil of fault, and evil of punishment; and of the two, evil of fault is the worse ...

BY SINS COMMITTED IN BUYING AND SELLING

Q1614: Whether it is lawful to sell a thing for more than its worth?

It is altogether sinful to have recourse to deceit in order to sell a thing for more than its just price, because this is to deceive one's neighbor so as to injure him...

Q1615: Whether a sale is rendered unlawful through a fault in the thing sold?

A threefold fault may be found pertaining to the thing which is sold...

Q1616: Whether the seller is bound to state the defects of the thing sold?

It is always unlawful to give anyone an occasion of danger or loss, although a man need not always give another the help or counsel which would be for his advantage in any way; but only in certain fixed cases, for instance when someone is subject to him, or when he is the only one who can assist him...

Q1617: Whether, in trading, it is lawful to sell a thing at a higher price than what was paid for it?

A tradesman is one whose business consists in the exchange of things...

BY SINS COMMITTED IN LOANS

Q1618: Whether it is a sin to take usury for money lent?

To take usury for money lent is unjust in itself, because this is to sell what does not exist, and this evidently leads to inequality which is contrary to justice...

Q1619: Whether it is lawful to ask for any other kind of consideration for money lent?

According to the Philosopher, a thing is reckoned as money "if its value can be measured by money"...

Q1620: Whether a man is bound to restore whatever profits he has made out of money gotten by usury?

As stated above, there are certain things whose use is their consumption, and which do not admit of usufruct, according to law ...

Q1621: Whether it is lawful to borrow money under a condition of usury?

It is by no means lawful to induce a man to sin, yet it is lawful to make use of another's sin for a good end, since even God uses all sin for some good, since He draws some good from every evil as stated in the Enchiridion ...

OF THE QUASI-INTEGRAL PARTS OF JUSTICE

Q1622: Whether to decline from evil and to do good are parts of justice?

If we speak of good and evil in general, it belongs to every virtue to do good and to avoid evil: and in this sense they cannot be reckoned parts of justice, except justice be taken in the sense of "all virtue"...

Q1623: Whether transgression is a special sin?

The term transgression is derived from bodily movement and applied to moral actions...

Q1624: Whether omission is a special sin?

Omission signifies the non-fulfilment of a good, not indeed of any good, but of a good that is due...

Q1625: Whether a sin of omission is more grievous than a sin of transgression?

The gravity of a sin depends on its remoteness from virtue...

OF THE POTENTIAL PARTS OF JUSTICE

Q1626: Whether the virtues annexed to justice are suitably enumerated?

Two points must be observed about the virtues annexed to a principal virtue...

OF RELIGION

Q1627: Whether religion directs man to God alone?

As Isidore says, "according to Cicero, a man is said to be religious from 'religio,' because he often ponders over, and, as it were, reads again, the things which pertain to the worship of God," so that religion would seem to take its name from reading over those things which belong to Divine worship because we ought frequently to ponder over such things in our hearts, according to Prov. 3:6, "In all thy ways think on Him"...

Q1628: Whether religion is a virtue?

As stated above "a virtue is that which makes its possessor good, and his act good likewise," wherefore we must needs say that every good act belongs to a virtue...

Q1629: Whether religion is one virtue?

As stated above, habits are differentiated according to a different aspect of the object...

Q1630: Whether religion is a special virtue, distinct from the others?

Since virtue is directed to the good, wherever there is a special aspect of good, there must be a special virtue...

Q1631: Whether religion is a theological virtue?

As stated above religion pays due worship to God...

Q1632: Whether religion should be preferred to the other moral virtues?

Whatever is directed to an end takes its goodness from being ordered to that end; so that the nearer it is to the end the better it is...

Q1633: Whether religion has an external act?

We pay God honor and reverence, not for His sake, but for our own sake, because by the very fact that we revere and honor God, our mind is subjected to Him; wherein its perfection consists, since a thing is perfected by being subjected to its superior, for instance the body is perfected by being quickened by the soul, and the air by being enlightened by the sun...

Q1634: Whether religion is the same as sanctity?

The word "sanctity" seems to have two significations...

OF DEVOTION

Q1635: Whether devotion is a special act?

Devotion is derived from "devote" ; wherefore those persons are said to be "devout" who, in a way, devote themselves to God, so as to subject themselves wholly to Him...

Q1636: Whether devotion is an act of religion?

It belongs to the same virtue, to will to do something, and to have the will ready to do it, because both acts have the same object...

Q1637: Whether contemplation or meditation is the cause of devotion?

The extrinsic and chief cause of devotion is God, of Whom Ambrose, commenting on Lk. 9:55, says that "God calls whom He deigns to call, and whom He wills He makes religious: the profane Samaritans, had He so willed, He would have made devout"...

Q1638: Whether joy is an effect of devotion?

The direct and principal effect of devotion is the spiritual joy of the mind, though sorrow is its secondary and indirect effect...

OF PRAYER

Q1639: Whether prayer is an act of the appetitive power?

According to Cassiodorus "prayer is spoken reason "...

Q1640: Whether it is becoming to pray?

Among the ancients there was a threefold error concerning prayer...

Q1641: Whether prayer is an act of religion?

As stated above, it belongs properly to religion to show honor to God, wherefore all those things through which reverence is shown to God, belong to religion...

Q1642: Whether we ought to pray to God alone?

Prayer is offered to a person in two ways: first, as to be fulfilled by him, secondly, as to be obtained through him...

Q1643: Whether we ought to ask for something definite when we pray?

According to Valerius Maximus, "Socrates deemed that we should ask the immortal gods for nothing else but that they should grant us good things, because they at any rate know what is good for each one whereas when we pray we frequently ask for what it had been better for us not to obtain"...

Q1644: Whether man ought to ask God for temporal things when he prays?

As Augustine says : "It is lawful to pray for what it is lawful to desire"...

Q1645: Whether we ought to pray for others?

As stated above, when we pray we ought to ask for what we ought to desire...

Q1646: Whether we ought to pray for our enemies?

To pray for another is an act of charity, as stated above ...

Q1647: Whether the seven petitions of the Lord's Prayer are fittingly assigned?

The Lord's Prayer is most perfect, because, as Augustine says, "if we pray rightly and fittingly, we can say nothing else but what is contained in this prayer of our Lord"...

Q1648: Whether prayer is proper to the rational creature?

As stated above prayer is an act of reason, and consists in beseeching a superior; just as command is an act of reason, whereby an inferior is directed to something...

Q1649: Whether the saints in heaven pray for us?

As Jerome says, the error of Vigilantius consisted in saying that "while we live, we can pray one for another; but that after we are dead, none of our prayers for others can be heard, seeing that not even the martyrs' prayers are granted when they pray for their blood to be avenged"...

Q1650: Whether prayer should be vocal?

Prayer is twofold, common and individual...

Q1651: Whether attention is a necessary condition of prayer?

This question applies chiefly to vocal prayer...

Q1652: Whether prayer should last a long time?

We may speak about prayer in two ways: first, by considering it in itself; secondly, by considering it in its cause...

Q1653: Whether prayer is meritorious?

As stated above prayer, besides causing spiritual consolation at the time of praying, has a twofold efficacy in respect of a future effect, namely, efficacy in meriting and efficacy in impetrating...

Q1654: Whether sinners impetrate anything from God by their prayers?

In the sinner, two things are to be considered: his nature which God loves, and the sin which He hates...

Q1655: Whether the parts of prayer are fittingly described as supplications, prayers, intercessions, and thanksgivings?

Three conditions are requisite for prayer...

OF ADORATION

Q1656: Whether adoration is an act of latria or religion?

Adoration is directed to the reverence of the person adored...

Q1657: Whether adoration denotes an action of the body?

As Damascene says, since we are composed of a twofold nature, intellectual and sensible, we offer God a twofold adoration; namely, a spiritual adoration, consisting in the internal devotion of the mind; and a bodily adoration, which consists in an exterior humbling of the body...

Q1658: Whether adoration requires a definite place?

As stated above, the chief part of adoration is the internal devotion of the mind, while the secondary part is something external pertaining to bodily signs...

OF SACRIFICE

Q1659: Whether offering a sacrifice to God is of the law of nature?

Natural reason tells man that he is subject to a higher being, on account of the defects which he perceives in himself, and in which he needs help and direction from someone above him: and whatever this superior being may be, it is known to all under the name of God...

Q1660: Whether sacrifice should be offered to God alone?

As stated above, a sacrifice is offered in order that something may be represented...

Q1661: Whether the offering of sacrifice is a special act of virtue?

As stated above, where an act of one virtue is directed to the end of another virtue it partakes somewhat of its species; thus when a man thieves in order to commit fornication, his theft assumes, in a sense, the deformity of fornication, so that even though it were not a sin otherwise, it would be a sin from the very fact that it was directed to fornication...

Q1662: Whether all are bound to offer sacrifices?

Sacrifice is twofold, as stated above ...

OF OBLATIONS AND FIRST-FRUITS

Q1663: Whether men are under a necessity of precept to make oblations?

As stated above, the term "oblation" is common to all things offered for the Divine worship, so that if a thing be offered to be destroyed in worship of God, as though it were being made into something holy, it is both an oblation and a sacrifice...

Q1664: Whether oblations are due to priests alone?

The priest is appointed mediator and stands, so to speak, "between" the people and God, as we read of Moses, wherefore it belongs to him to set forth the Divine teachings and sacraments before the people; and besides to offer to the Lord things appertaining to the people, their prayers, for instance, their sacrifices and oblations...

Q1665: Whether a man may make oblations of whatever he lawfully possesses?

As Augustine says, "shouldst thou plunder one weaker than thyself and give some of the spoil to the judge, if he should pronounce in thy favor, such is the force of justice that even thou wouldst not be pleased with him: and if this should not please thee, neither does it please thy God"...

Q1666: Whether men are bound to pay first-fruits?

First-fruits are a kind of oblation, because they are offered to God with a certain profession ; where the same passage continues: "The priest taking the basket containing the first-fruits from the hand of him that bringeth the first-fruits, shall set it before the altar of the Lord thy God," and further on he is commanded to say: "Therefore now I offer the first-fruits of the land, which the Lord hath given me"...

OF TITHES

Q1667: Whether men are bound to pay tithes under a necessity of precept?

In the Old Law tithes were paid for the sustenance of the ministers of God...

Q1668: Whether men are bound to pay tithes of all things?

In judging about a thing we should look to its principle...

Q1669: Whether tithes should be paid to the clergy?

Two things have to be considered with regard to tithes: namely, the right to receive tithes, and the things given in the name of tithes...

Q1670: Whether the clergy also are bound to pay tithes?

The cause of giving cannot be the cause of receiving, as neither can the cause of action be the cause of passion; yet it happens that one and the same person is giver and receiver, even as agent and patient, on account of different causes and from different points of view...

SERVICE BY PROMISE

Q1671: Whether a vow consists in a mere purpose of the will?

A vow denotes a binding to do or omit some particular thing...

Q1672: Whether a vow should always be about a better good?

As stated above, a vow is a promise made to God...

Q1673: Whether all vows are binding?

For one to be accounted faithful one must keep one's promises...

Q1674: Whether it is expedient to take vows?

As stated above, a vow is a promise made to God...

Q1675: Whether a vow is an act of latria or religion?

As stated above, every act of virtue belongs to religion or latria by way of command, in so far as it is directed to the reverence of God which is the proper end of latria...

Q1676: Whether it is more praiseworthy and meritorious to do something in fulfilment of a vow, than without a vow?

For three reasons it is better and more meritorious to do one and the same deed with a vow than without...

Q1677: Whether a vow is solemnized by the reception of holy orders, and by the profession of a certain rule?

The manner in which a thing is solemnized depends on its nature : thus when a man takes up arms he solemnizes the fact in one way, namely, with a certain display of horses and arms and a concourse of soldiers, while a marriage is solemnized in another way, namely, the array of the bridegroom and bride and the gathering of their kindred...

Q1678: Whether those who are subject to another's power are hindered from taking vows?

As stated above, a vow is a promise made to God...

Q1679: Whether children can bind themselves by vow to enter religion?

As may be gathered from what has been said above, vows are of two kinds, simple and solemn...

Q1680: Whether vows admit of dispensation?

The dispensation from a vow is to be taken in the same sense as a dispensation given in the observance of a law because, as stated above, a law is made with an eye to that which is good in the majority of instances...

Q1681: Whether it is possible to be dispensed from a solemn vow of continency?

Three things may be considered in a solemn vow of continency: first, the matter of the vow, namely, continency; secondly, the perpetuity of the vow, namely, when a person binds himself by vow to the perpetual observance of chastity: thirdly, the solemnity of the vow...

Q1682: Whether the authority of a prelate is required for commutation or the dispensation of a vow?

As stated above, a vow is a promise made to God about something acceptable to Him...

OF OATHS

Q1683: Whether to swear is to call God to witness?

As the Apostle says, oaths are taken for the purpose of confirmation...

Q1684: Whether it is lawful to swear?

Nothing prevents a thing being good in itself, and yet becoming a source of evil to one who makes use thereof unbecomingly: thus to receive the Eucharist is good, and yet he that receives it "unworthily, eateth and drinketh judgment to himself" ...

Q1685: Whether three accompanying conditions of an oath are suitably assigned, namely, justice, judgment, and truth?

As stated above, an oath is not good except for one who makes good use of it...

Q1686: Whether an oath is an act of religion or latria?

As appears from what has been said above, he that swears calls God to witness in confirmation of what he says...

Q1687: Whether oaths are desirable and to be used frequently as something useful and good?

Whatever is required merely as a remedy for an infirmity or a defect, is not reckoned among those things that are desirable for their own sake, but among those that are necessary: this is clear in the case of medicine which is required as a remedy for sickness...

Q1688: Whether it is lawful to swear by creatures?

As stated above, there are two kinds of oath...

Q1689: Whether an oath has a binding force?

An obligation implies something to be done or omitted; so that apparently it regards neither the declaratory oath, nor such oaths as are about something to be effected by some other cause, but only such as are about things to be done by the person who swears.

Q1690: Whether an oath is more binding than a vow?

The obligation both of vow and of an oath arises from something Divine; but in different ways...

Q1691: Whether anyone can dispense from an oath?

As stated above, the necessity of a dispensation both from the law and from a vow arises from the fact that something which is useful and morally good in itself and considered in general, may be morally evil and hurtful in respect of some particular emergency: and such a case comes under neither law nor vow...

Q1692: Whether an oath is voided by a condition of person or time?

Two things are to be considered in an oath...

OF THE TAKING OF GOD'S NAME BY WAY OF ADJURATION

Q1693: Whether it is lawful to adjure a man?

A man who utters a promissory oath, swearing by his reverence for the Divine name, which he invokes in confirmation of his promise, binds himself to do what he has undertaken, and so orders himself unchangeably to do a certain thing...

Q1694: Whether it is lawful to adjure the demons?

As stated in the preceding article, there are two ways of adjuring: one by way of prayer or inducement through reverence of some holy thing: the other by way of compulsion...

Q1695: Whether it is lawful to adjure an irrational creature?

Irrational creatures are directed to their own actions by some other agent...

OF TAKING THE DIVINE NAME FOR THE PURPOSE OF INVOKING IT BY MEANS OF PRAISE

Q1696: Whether God should be praised with the lips?

We use words, in speaking to God, for one reason, and in speaking to man, for another reason...

Q1697: Whether God should be praised with song?

As stated above, the praise of the voice is necessary in order to arouse man's devotion towards God...

OF SUPERSTITION

Q1698: Whether superstition is a vice contrary to religion?

As stated above, religion is a moral virtue...

Q1699: Whether there are various species of superstition?

As stated above, sins against religion consist in going beyond the mean of virtue in respect of certain circumstances ...

OF SUPERSTITION CONSISTING IN UNDUE WORSHIP OF THE TRUE GOD

Q1700: Whether there can be anything pernicious in the worship of the true God?

As Augustine states, "a most pernicious lie is that which is uttered in matters pertaining to Christian religion"...

Q1701: Whether there can be any excess in the worship of God?

A thing is said to be in excess in two ways...

OF IDOLATRY

Q1702: Whether idolatry is rightly reckoned a species of superstition?

As stated above, it belongs to superstition to exceed the due mode of divine worship, and this is done chiefly when divine worship is given to whom it should not be given...

Q1703: Whether idolatry is a sin?

There has been a twofold error in this matter...

Q1704: Whether idolatry is the gravest of sins?

The gravity of a sin may be considered in two ways...

Q1705: Whether the cause of idolatry was on the part of man?

Idolatry had a twofold cause...

OF SUPERSTITION IN DIVINATIONS

Q1706: Whether divination is a sin?

Divination denotes a foretelling of the future...

Q1707: Whether divination is a species of superstition?

As stated above, superstition denotes undue divine worship...

Q1708: Whether we ought to distinguish several species of divination?

As stated above, all divinations seek to acquire foreknowledge of future events, by means of some counsel and help of a demon, who is either expressly called upon to give his help, or else thrusts himself in secretly, in order to foretell certain future things unknown to men, but known to him in such manners as have been explained earlier...

Q1709: Whether divination practiced by invoking the demons is unlawful?

All divination by invoking demons is unlawful for two reasons...

Q1710: Whether divination by the stars is unlawful?

As stated above, the operation of the demon thrusts itself into those divinations which are based on false and vain opinions, in order that man's mind may become entangled in vanity and falsehood...

Q1711: Whether divination by dreams is unlawful?

As stated above, divination is superstitious and unlawful when it is based on a false opinion...

Q1712: Whether divination by auguries, omens, and by like observations of external things is unlawful?

The movements or cries of birds, and whatever dispositions one may consider in such things, are manifestly not the cause of future events: wherefore the future cannot be known therefrom as from its cause...

Q1713: Whether divination by drawing lots is unlawful?

As stated above, sortilege consists, properly speaking, in doing something, that by observing the result one may come to the knowledge of something unknown...

OF SUPERSTITION IN OBSERVANCES

Q1714: Whether it be unlawful to practice the observances of the magic art?

The magic art is both unlawful and futile...

Q1715: Whether observances directed to the alteration of bodies, as for the purpose of acquiring health or the like, are unlawful?

In things done for the purpose of producing some bodily effect we must consider whether they seem able to produce that effect naturally: for if so it will not be unlawful to do so, since it is lawful to employ natural causes in order to produce their proper effects...

Q1716: Whether observances directed to the purpose of fortune-telling are unlawful?

Men attend to all these observances, not as causes but as signs of future events, good or evil...

Q1717: Whether it is unlawful to wear divine words at the neck?

In every incantation or wearing of written words, two points seem to demand caution...

OF THE TEMPTATION OF GOD

Q1718: Whether the temptation of God consists in certain deeds, wherein the expected result is ascribed to the power of God alone?

Properly speaking, to tempt is to test the person tempted...

Q1719: Whether it is a sin to tempt God?

As stated above, to tempt a person is to put him to a test...

Q1720: Whether temptation of God is opposed to the virtue of religion?

As clearly shown above, the end of religion is to pay reverence to God...

Q1721: Whether the temptation of God is a graver sin than superstition?

Among sins opposed to religion, the more grievous is that which is the more opposed to the reverence due to God...

OF PERJURY

Q1722: Whether it is necessary for perjury that the statement confirmed on oath be false?

As stated above, moral acts take their species from their end...

Q1723: Whether all perjury is sinful?

As stated above, to swear is to call God as witness...

Q1724: Whether all perjury is a mortal sin?

According to the teaching of the Philosopher, "that which causes a thing to be such is yet more so"...

Q1725: Whether he sins who demands an oath of a perjurer?

As regards a person who demands an oath from another, a distinction would seem to be necessary...

OF SACRILEGE

Q1726: Whether sacrilege is the violation of a sacred thing?

As stated above, a thing is called "sacred" through being deputed to the divine worship...

Q1727: Whether sacrilege is a special sin?

Wherever we find a special aspect of deformity, there must needs be a special sin; because the species of a thing is derived chiefly from its formal aspect, and not from its matter or subject...

Q1728: Whether the species of sacrilege are distinguished according to the sacred things?

As stated above, the sin of sacrilege consists in the irreverent treatment of a sacred thing...

Q1729: Whether the punishment of sacrilege should be pecuniary?

In the award of punishments two points must be considered...

ON SIMONY

Q1730: Whether simony is an intentional will to buy or sell something spiritual or connected with a spiritual thing?

As stated above an act is evil generically when it bears on undue matter...

Q1731: Whether it is always unlawful to give money for the sacraments?

The sacraments of the New Law are of all things most spiritual, inasmuch as they are the cause of spiritual grace, on which no price can be set, and which is essentially incompatible with a non-gratuitous giving...

Q1732: Whether it is lawful to give and receive money for spiritual actions?

Just as the sacraments are called spiritual, because they confer a spiritual grace, so, too, certain other things are called spiritual, because they flow from spiritual grace and dispose thereto...

Q1733: Whether it is lawful to receive money for things annexed to spiritual things?

A thing may be annexed to spiritual things in two ways...

Q1734: Whether it is lawful to grant spiritual things in return for an equivalent of service, or for an oral remuneration?

As stated above, the term "money" denotes "anything that can have a pecuniary value"...

Q1735: Whether those who are guilty of simony are fittingly punished by being deprived of what they have acquired by simony?

No one can lawfully retain that which he has acquired against the owner's will...

OF PIETY

Q1736: Whether piety extends to particular human individuals?

Man becomes a debtor to other men in various ways, according to their various excellence and the various benefits received from them. on both counts God holds first place, for He is supremely excellent, and is for us the first principle of being and government...

Q1737: Whether piety provides support for our parents?

We owe something to our parents in two ways: that is to say, both essentially, and accidentally...

Q1738: Whether piety is a special virtue distinct from other virtues?

A special virtue is one that regards an object under a special aspect...

Q1739: Whether the duties of piety towards one's parents should be omitted for the sake of religion?

Religion and piety are two virtues...

OF OBSERVANCE, CONSIDERED IN ITSELF, AND OF ITS PARTS

Q1740: Whether observance is a special virtue, distinct from other virtues?

As explained above, according to the various excellences of those persons to whom something is due, there must needs be a corresponding distinction of virtues in a descending order...

Q1741: Whether it belongs to observance to pay worship and honor to those who are in positions of dignity?

It belongs to persons in positions of dignity to govern subjects...

Q1742: Whether observance is a greater virtue than piety?

Something may be paid to persons in positions of dignity in two ways...

OF DULIA

Q1743: Whether honor denotes something corporal?

Honor denotes a witnessing to a person's excellence...

Q1744: Whether honor is properly due to those who are above us?

As stated above, honor is nothing but an acknowledgment of a person's excelling goodness...

Q1745: Whether dulia is a special virtue distinct from latria?

According to what has been stated above, where there are different aspects of that which is due, there must needs be different virtues to render those dues...

Q1746: Whether dulia has various species?

Dulia may be taken in two ways...

OF OBEDIENCE

Q1747: Whether one man is bound to obey another?

Just as the actions of natural things proceed from natural powers, so do human actions proceed from the human will...

Q1748: Whether obedience is a special virtue?

A special virtue is assigned to all good deeds that have a special reason of praise: for it belongs properly to virtue to render a deed good...

Q1749: Whether obedience is the greatest of the virtues?

Just as sin consists in man contemning God and adhering to mutable things, so the merit of a virtuous act consists in man contemning created goods and adhering to God as his end...

Q1750: Whether God ought to be obeyed in all things?

As stated above, he who obeys is moved by the command of the person he obeys, just as natural things are moved by their motive causes...

Q1751: Whether subjects are bound to obey their superiors in all things?

As stated above, he who obeys is moved at the bidding of the person who commands him, by a certain necessity of justice, even as a natural thing is moved through the power of its mover by a natural necessity...

Q1752: Whether Christians are bound to obey the secular powers?

Faith in Christ is the origin and cause of justice, according to Rom. 3:22, "The justice of God by faith of Jesus Christ:" wherefore faith in Christ does not void the order of justice, but strengthens it"...

OF DISOBEDIENCE

Q1753: Whether disobedience is a mortal sin?

As stated above, a mortal sin is one that is contrary to charity which is the cause of spiritual life...

Q1754: Whether disobedience is the most grievous of sins?

Not every disobedience is equally a sin: for one disobedience may be greater than another, in two ways...

OF THANKFULNESS OR GRATITUDE

Q1755: Whether thankfulness is a special virtue, distinct from other virtues?

As stated above, the nature of the debt to be paid must needs vary according to various causes giving rise to the debt, yet so that the greater always includes the lesser...

Q1756: Whether the innocent is more bound to give thanks to God than the penitent?

Thanksgiving in the recipient corresponds to the favor of the giver: so that when there is greater favor on the part of the giver, greater thanks are due on the part of the recipient...

Q1757: Whether a man is bound to give thanks to every benefactor?

Every effect turns naturally to its cause; wherefore Dionysius says that "God turns all things to Himself because He is the cause of all": for the effect must needs always be directed to the end of the agent...

Q1758: Whether a man is bound to repay a favor at once?

Just as in conferring a favor two things are to be considered, namely, the affection of the heart and the gift, so also must these things be considered in repaying the favor...

Q1759: Whether in giving thanks we should look at the benefactor's disposition or at the deed?

The repayment of a favor may belong to three virtues, namely, justice, gratitude and friendship...

Q1760: Whether the repayment of gratitude should surpass the favor received?

As stated above, gratitude regards the favor received according the intention of the benefactor; who seems be deserving of praise, chiefly for having conferred the favor gratis without being bound to do so...

OF INGRATITUDE

Q1761: Whether ingratitude is always a sin?

As stated above a debt of gratitude is a moral debt required by virtue...

Q1762: Whether ingratitude is a special sin?

Every vice is denominated from a deficiency of virtue, because deficiency is more opposed to virtue: thus illiberality is more opposed to liberality than prodigality is...

Q1763: Whether ingratitude is always a mortal sin?

As appears from what we have said above, a man may be ungrateful in two ways: first, by mere omission, for instance by failing to recognize the favor received, or to express his appreciation of it or to pay something in return, and this is not always a mortal sin, because, as stated above, the debt of gratitude requires a man to make a liberal return, which, however, he is not bound to do; wherefore if he fail to do so, he does not sin mortally...

Q1764: Whether favors should be withheld from the ungrateful?

There are two points to be considered with regard to an ungrateful person...

OF VENGEANCE

Q1765: Whether vengeance is lawful?

Vengeance consists in the infliction of a penal evil on one who has sinned...

Q1766: Whether vengeance is a special virtue?

As the Philosopher states, aptitude to virtue is in us by nature, but the complement of virtue is in us through habituation or some other cause...

Q1767: Whether vengeance should be wrought by means of punishments customary among men?

Vengeance is lawful and virtuous so far as it tends to the prevention of evil...

Q1768: Whether vengeance should be taken on those who have sinned involuntarily?

Punishment may be considered in two ways...

OF TRUTH

Q1769: Whether truth is a virtue?

Truth can be taken in two ways...

Q1770: Whether truth is a special virtue?

The nature of human virtue consists in making a man's deed good...

Q1771: Whether truth is a part of justice?

As stated above, a virtue is annexed to justice, as secondary to a principal virtue, through having something in common with justice, while falling short from the perfect virtue thereof...

Q1772: Whether the virtue of truth inclines rather to that which is less?

There are two ways of declining from the truth to that which is less...

OF THE VICES OPPOSED TO TRUTH, AND FIRST OF LYING

Q1773: Whether lying is always opposed to truth?

A moral act takes its species from two things, its object, and its end: for the end is the object of the will, which is the first mover in moral acts...

Q1774: Whether lies are sufficiently divided into officious, jocose, and mischievous lies?

Lies may be divided in three ways...

Q1775: Whether every lie is a sin?

An action that is naturally evil in respect of its genus can by no means be good and lawful, since in order for an action to be good it must be right in every respect: because good results from a complete cause, while evil results from any single defect, as Dionysius asserts ...

Q1776: Whether every lie is a mortal sin?

A mortal sin is, properly speaking, one that is contrary to charity whereby the soul lives in union with God, as stated above ...

OF DISSIMULATION AND HYPOCRISY

Q1777: Whether all dissimulation is a sin?

As stated above, it belongs to the virtue of truth to show oneself outwardly by outward signs to be such as one is...

Q1778: Whether hypocrisy is the same as dissimulation?

As Isidore says, "the word hypocrite is derived from the appearance of those who come on to the stage with a disguised face, by changing the color of their complexion, so as to imitate the complexion of the person they simulate, at one time under the guise of a man, at another under the guise of a woman, so as to deceive the people in their acting"...

Q1779: Whether hypocrisy is contrary to the virtue of truth?

According to the Philosopher, "contrariety is opposition as regards form," i.e. the specific form...

Q1780: Whether hypocrisy is always a mortal sin?

There are two things in hypocrisy, lack of holiness, and simulation thereof...

OF BOASTING

Q1781: Whether boasting is opposed to the virtue of truth?

"Jactantia" seems properly to denote the uplifting of self by words: since if a man wishes to throw a thing far away, he lifts it up high...

Q1782: Whether boasting is a mortal sin?

As stated above, a mortal sin is one that is contrary to charity...

IRONY*

Q1783: Whether irony is a sin?

To speak so as to belittle oneself may occur in two ways...

Q1784: Whether irony is a less grievous sin than boasting?

As stated above, one lie is more grievous than another, sometimes on account of the matter which it is about---thus a lie about a matter of religious doctrine is most grievous---and sometimes on account of the motive for sinning; thus a mischievous lie is more grievous than an officious or jocose lie...

OF THE FRIENDLINESS WHICH IS CALLED AFFABILITY

Q1785: Whether friendliness is a special virtue?

As stated above, since virtue is directed to good, wherever there is a special kind of good, there must needs be a special kind of virtue...

Q1786: Whether this kind of friendship is a part of justice?

This virtue is a part of justice, being annexed to it as to a principal virtue...

OF FLATTERY

Q1787: Whether flattery is a sin?

As stated above, although the friendship of which we have been speaking, or affability, intends chiefly the pleasure of those among whom one lives, yet it does not fear to displease when it is a question of obtaining a certain good, or of avoiding a certain evil...

Q1788: Whether flattery is a mortal sin?

As stated above, a mortal sin is one that is contrary to charity...

OF QUARRELING

Q1789: Whether quarreling is opposed to the virtue of friendship or affability?

Quarreling consists properly in words, when, namely, one person contradicts another's words...

Q1790: Whether quarreling is a more grievous sin than flattery?

We can speak of each of these sins in two ways...

OF LIBERALITY

Q1791: Whether liberality is a virtue?

As Augustine says, "it belongs to virtue to use well the things that we can use ill"...

Q1792: Whether liberality is about money?

According to the Philosopher it belongs to the liberal man to part with things...

Q1793: Whether using money is the act of liberality?

The species of an act is taken from its object, as stated above ...

Q1794: Whether it belongs to a liberal man chiefly to give?

It is proper to a liberal man to use money...

Q1795: Whether liberality is a part of justice?

Liberality is not a species of justice, since justice pays another what is his whereas liberality gives another what is one's own...

Q1796: Whether liberality is the greatest of the virtues?

Every virtue tends towards a good; wherefore the greater virtue is that which tends towards the greater good...

OF THE VICES OPPOSED TO LIBERALITY, AND IN THE FIRST PLACE, OF COVETOUSNESS

Q1797: Whether covetousness is a sin?

In whatever things good consists in a due measure, evil must of necessity ensue through excess or deficiency of that measure...

Q1798: Whether covetousness is a special sin?

Sins take their species from their objects, as stated above ...

Q1799: Whether covetousness is opposed to liberality?

Covetousness denotes immoderation with regard to riches in two ways...

Q1800: Whether covetousness is always a mortal sin?

As stated above covetousness is twofold...

Q1801: Whether covetousness is the greatest of sins?

Every sin, from the very fact that it is an evil, consists in the corruption or privation of some good: while, in so far as it is voluntary, it consists in the desire of some good...

Q1802: Whether covetousness is a spiritual sin?

Sins are seated chiefly in the affections: and all the affections or passions of the soul have their term in pleasure and sorrow, according to the Philosopher ...

Q1803: Whether covetousness is a capital vice?

As stated in the Second Objection, a capital vice is one which under the aspect of end gives rise to other vices: because when an end is very desirable, the result is that through desire thereof man sets about doing many things either good or evil...

Q1804: Whether treachery, fraud, falsehood, perjury, restlessness, violence, and insensibility to mercy are daughters of covetousness?

The daughters of covetousness are the vices which arise therefrom, especially in respect of the desire of an end...

OF PRODIGALITY

Q1805: Whether prodigality is opposite to covetousness?

In morals vices are opposed to one another and to virtue in respect of excess and deficiency...

Q1806: Whether prodigality is a sin?

As stated above, the opposition between prodigality and covetousness is one of excess and deficiency; either of which destroys the mean of virtue...

Q1807: Whether prodigality is a more grievous sin than covetousness?

Prodigality considered in itself is a less grievous sin than covetousness, and this for three reasons...

OF "EPIKEIA" OR EQUITY

Q1808: Whether "epikeia" is a virtue?

As stated above, when we were treating of laws, since human actions, with which laws are concerned, are composed of contingent singulars and are innumerable in their diversity, it was not possible to lay down rules of law that would apply to every single case...

Q1809: Whether "epikeia" is a part of justice?

As stated above, a virtue has three kinds of parts, subjective, integral, and potential...

OF PIETY

Q1810: Whether piety is a gift?

As stated above, the gifts of the Holy Ghost are habitual dispositions of the soul, rendering it amenable to the motion of the Holy Ghost...

Q1811: Whether the second beatitude, "Blessed are the meek," corresponds to the gift of piety?

In adapting the beatitudes to the gifts a twofold congruity may be observed...

OF THE PRECEPTS OF JUSTICE

Q1812: Whether the precepts of the decalogue are precepts of justice?

The precepts of the decalogue are the first principles of the Law: and the natural reason assents to them at once, as to principles that are most evident...

Q1813: Whether the first precept of the decalogue is fittingly expressed?

It pertains to law to make men good, wherefore it behooved the precepts of the Law to be set in order according to the order of generation, the order, to wit, of man's becoming good...

Q1814: Whether the second precept of the decalogue is fittingly expressed?

In one who is being instructed in virtue it is necessary to remove obstacles to true religion before establishing him in true religion...

Q1815: Whether the third precept of the decalogue, concerning the hallowing of the Sabbath, is fittingly expressed?

The obstacles to true religion being removed by the first and second precepts of the decalogue, as stated above, it remained for the third precept to be given whereby man is established in true religion...

Q1816: Whether the fourth precept, about honoring one's parents, is fittingly expressed?

The precepts of the decalogue are directed to the love of God and of our neighbor...

Q1817: Whether the other six precepts of the decalogue are fittingly expressed?

Just as by the parts of justice a man pays that which is due to certain definite persons, to whom he is bound for some special reason, so too by justice properly so called he pays that which is due to all in general...

TREATISE ON FORTITUDE AND TEMPERANCE

OF FORTITUDE

Q1818: Whether fortitude is a virtue?

According to the Philosopher "virtue is that which makes its possessor good, and renders his work good"...

Q1819: Whether fortitude is a special virtue?

As stated above, the term "fortitude" can be taken in two ways...

Q1820: Whether fortitude is about fear and dying?

As stated above, it belongs to the virtue of fortitude to remove any obstacle that withdraws the will from following the reason...

Q1821: Whether fortitude is only about dangers of death?

As stated above, it belongs to the virtue of fortitude to guard the will against being withdrawn from the good of reason through fear of bodily evil...

Q1822: Whether fortitude is properly about dangers of death in battle?

As stated above, fortitude strengthens a man's mind against the greatest danger, which is that of death...

Q1823: Whether endurance is the chief act of fortitude?

As stated above, and according to the Philosopher, "fortitude is more concerned to allay fear, than to moderate daring"...

Q1824: Whether the brave man acts for the sake of the good of his habit?

An end is twofold: proximate and ultimate...

Q1825: Whether the brave man delights in his act?

As stated above where we were treating of the passions, pleasure is twofold; one is bodily, resulting from bodily contact, the other is spiritual, resulting from an apprehension of the soul...

Q1826: Whether fortitude deals chiefly with sudden occurrences?

Two things must be considered in the operation of fortitude...

Q1827: Whether the brave man makes use of anger in his action?

As stated above, concerning anger and the other passions there was a difference of opinion between the Peripatetics and the Stoics...

As stated above, those virtues are said to be cardinal or principal which have a foremost claim to that which belongs to the virtues in common...

Q1828: Whether fortitude excels among all other virtues?

As Augustine says, "In things that are great, but not in bulk, to be great is to be good": wherefore the better a virtue the greater it is...

OF MARTYRDOM

Q1829: Whether martyrdom is an act of virtue?

As stated above, it belongs to virtue to safeguard man in the good of reason...

Q1830: Whether martyrdom is an act of fortitude?

As stated above, it belongs to fortitude to strengthen man in the good of virtue, especially against dangers, and chiefly against dangers of death, and most of all against those that occur in battle...

Q1831: Whether martyrdom is an act of the greatest perfection?

We may speak of an act of virtue in two ways...

Q1832: Whether death is essential to martyrdom?

As stated above, a martyr is so called as being a witness to the Christian faith, which teaches us to despise things visible for the sake of things invisible, as stated in Heb. 11...

Q1833: Whether faith alone is the cause of martyrdom?

As stated above, martyrs are so called as being witnesses, because by suffering in body unto death they bear witness to the truth; not indeed to any truth, but to the truth which is in accordance with godliness, and was made known to us by Christ: wherefore Christ's martyrs are His witnesses...

OF FEAR*

Q1834: Whether fear is a sin?

A human act is said to be a sin on account of its being inordinate, because the good of a human act consists in order, as stated above ...

Q1835: Whether the sin of fear is contrary to fortitude?

As stated above, all fear arises from love; since no one fears save what is contrary to something he loves...

Q1836: Whether fear is a mortal sin?

As stated above, fear is a sin through being inordinate, that is to say, through shunning what ought not to be shunned according to reason...

Q1837: Whether fear excuses from sin?

As stated above, fear is sinful in so far as it runs counter to the order of reason...

OF FEARLESSNESS

Q1838: Whether fearlessness is a sin?

Since fear is born of love, we must seemingly judge alike of love and fear...

Q1839: Whether fearlessness is opposed to fortitude?

As stated above, fortitude is concerned about fear and daring...

OF DARING

Q1840: Whether daring is a sin?

Daring, as stated above, is a passion...

Q1841: Whether daring is opposed to fortitude?

As stated above, it belongs to a moral virtue to observe the rational mean in the matter about which it is concerned...

OF THE PARTS OF FORTITUDE

Q1842: Whether the parts of fortitude are suitably assigned?

As stated above, a virtue can have three kinds of parts, subjective, integral, and potential...

OF MAGNANIMITY*

Q1843: Whether magnanimity is about honors?

Magnanimity by its very name denotes stretching forth of the mind to great things...

Q1844: Whether magnanimity is essentially about great honors?

According to the Philosopher, virtue is a perfection, and by this we are to understand the perfection of a power, and that it regards the extreme limit of that power, as stated in De Coelo i, 116...

Q1845: Whether magnanimity is a virtue?

The essence of human virtue consists in safeguarding the good of reason in human affairs, for this is man's proper good...

Q1846: Whether magnanimity is a special virtue?

As stated above, it belongs to a special virtue to establish the mode of reason in a determinate matter...

Q1847: Whether magnanimity is a part of fortitude?

As stated above, a principal virtue is one to which it belongs to establish a general mode of virtue in a principal matter...

Q1848: Whether confidence belongs to magnanimity?

Confidence takes its name from "fides" : and it belongs to faith to believe something and in somebody...

Q1849: Whether security belongs to magnanimity?

As the Philosopher says, "fear makes a man take counsel," because, to wit he takes care to avoid what he fears...

Q1850: Whether goods of fortune conduce to magnanimity?

As stated above, magnanimity regards two things: honor as its matter, and the accomplishment of something great as its end...

OF PRESUMPTION

Q1851: Whether presumption is a sin?

Since whatever is according to nature, is ordered by the Divine Reason, which human reason ought to imitate, whatever is done in accordance with human reason in opposition to the order established in general throughout natural things is vicious and sinful...

Q1852: Whether presumption is opposed to magnanimity by excess?

As stated above, magnanimity observes the means, not as regards the quantity of that to which it tends, but in proportion to our own ability: for it does not tend to anything greater than is becoming to us.

OF AMBITION

Q1853: Whether ambition is a sin?

As stated above, honor denotes reverence shown to a person in witness of his excellence...

Q1854: Whether ambition is opposed to magnanimity by excess?

As stated above, ambition signifies inordinate love of honor...

OF VAINGLORY

Q1855: Whether the desire of glory is a sin?

Glory signifies a certain clarity, wherefore Augustine says that to be "glorified is the same as to be clarified"...

Q1856: Whether vainglory is opposed to magnanimity?

As stated above, glory is an effect of honor and praise: because from the fact that a man is praised, or shown any kind of reverence, he acquires charity in the knowledge of others...

Q1857: Whether vainglory is a mortal sin?

As stated above, a sin is mortal through being contrary to charity...

Q1858: Whether vainglory is a capital vice?

The capital vices are enumerated in two ways...

Q1859: Whether the daughters of vainglory are suitably reckoned to be disobedience, boastfulness, hypocrisy, contention, obstinacy, discord, and love of novelties?

As stated above, the vices which by their very nature are such as to be directed to the end of a certain capital vice, are called its daughters...

OF PUSILLANIMITY

Q1860: Whether pusillanimity is a sin?

Whatever is contrary to a natural inclination is a sin, because it is contrary to a law of nature...

Q1861: Whether pusillanimity is opposed to magnanimity?

Pusillanimity may be considered in three ways...

OF MAGNIFICENCE

Q1862: Whether magnificence is a virtue?

According to De Coelo i, 16, "we speak of virtue in relation to the extreme limit of a thing's power," not as regards the limit of deficiency, but as regards the limit of excess, the very nature of which denotes something great...

Q1863: Whether magnificence is a special virtue?

It belongs to magnificence to do something great, as its name implies ...

Q1864: Whether the matter of magnificence is great expenditure?

As stated above, it belongs to magnificence to intend doing some great work...

Q1865: Whether magnificence is a part of fortitude?

Magnificence, in so far as it is a special virtue, cannot be reckoned a subjective part of fortitude, since it does not agree with this virtue in the point of matter: but it is reckoned a part thereof, as being annexed to it as secondary to principal virtue.

OF MEANNESS*

Q1866: Whether meanness is a vice?

As stated above, moral acts take their species from their end, wherefore in many cases they are denominated from that end...

Q1867: Whether there is a vice opposed to meanness?

Great is opposed to little...

OF PATIENCE

Q1868: Whether patience is a virtue?

As stated above, the moral virtues are directed to the good, inasmuch as they safeguard the good of reason against the impulse of the passions...

Q1869: Whether patience is the greatest of the virtues?

Virtues by their very nature are directed to good...

Q1870: Whether it is possible to have patience without grace?

As Augustine says, "the strength of desire helps a man to bear toil and pain: and no one willingly undertakes to bear what is painful, save for the sake of that which gives pleasure"...

Q1871: Whether patience is a part of fortitude?

Patience is a quasi-potential part of fortitude, because it is annexed thereto as secondary to principal virtue...

Q1872: Whether patience is the same as longanimity?

Just as by magnanimity a man has a mind to tend to great things, so by longanimity a man has a mind to tend to something a long way off...

OF PERSEVERANCE

Q1873: Whether perseverance is a virtue?

According to the Philosopher, "virtue is about the difficult and the good"; and so where there is a special kind of difficulty or goodness, there is a special virtue...

Q1874: Whether perseverance is a part of fortitude?

As stated above, a principal virtue is one to which is principally ascribed something that lays claim to the praise of virtue, inasmuch as it practices it in connection with its own matter, wherein it is most difficult of accomplishment...

Q1875: Whether constancy pertains to perseverance?

Perseverance and constancy agree as to end, since it belongs to both to persist firmly in some good: but they differ as to those things which make it difficult to persist in good...

Q1876: Whether perseverance needs the help of grace?

As stated above, perseverance has a twofold signification...

OF THE VICES OPPOSED TO PERSEVERANCE

Q1877: Whether effeminacy* is opposed to perseverance?

As stated above, perseverance is deserving of praise because thereby a man does not forsake a good on account of long endurance of difficulties and toils: and it is directly opposed to this, seemingly, for a man to be ready to forsake a good on account of difficulties which he cannot endure...

Q1878: Whether pertinacity is opposed to perseverance?

As Isidore says "a person is said to be pertinacious who holds on impudently, as being utterly tenacious"...

OF THE GIFT OF FORTITUDE

Q1879: Whether fortitude is a gift?

Fortitude denotes a certain firmness of mind, as stated above : and this firmness of mind is required both in doing good and in enduring evil, especially with regard to goods or evils that are difficult...

Q1880: Whether the fourth beatitude: "Blessed are they that hunger and thirst after justice," corresponds to the gift of fortitude?

As stated above, Augustine makes the beatitudes correspond to the gifts according to the order in which they are set forth, observing at the same time a certain fittingness between them...

OF THE PRECEPTS OF FORTITUDE

Q1881: Whether the precepts of fortitude are suitably given in the Divine Law?

Precepts of law are directed to the end intended by the lawgiver...

Q1882: Whether the precepts of the parts of fortitude are suitably given in the Divine Law?

The Divine Law instructs man perfectly about such things as are necessary for right living...

OF TEMPERANCE

Q1883: Whether temperance is a virtue?

As stated above, it is essential to virtue to incline man to good...

Q1884: Whether temperance is a special virtue?

It is customary in human speech to employ a common term in a restricted sense in order to designate the principal things to which that common term is applicable: thus the word "city" is used antonomastically* to designate Rome. ...

Q1885: Whether temperance is only about desires and pleasures?

As stated above, it belongs to moral virtue to safeguard the good of reason against the passions that rebel against reason...

Q1886: Whether temperance is only about desires and pleasures of touch?

As stated above, temperance is about desires and pleasures in the same way as fortitude is about fear and daring...

Q1887: Whether temperance is about the pleasures proper to the taste?

As stated above, temperance is about the greatest pleasures, which chiefly regard the preservation of human life either in the species or in the individual...

Q1888: Whether the rule of temperance depends on the need of the present life?

As stated above, the good of moral virtue consists chiefly in the order of reason: because "man's good is to be in accord with reason," as Dionysius asserts ...

Q1889: Whether temperance is a cardinal virtue?

As stated above, a principal or cardinal virtue is so called because it has a foremost claim to praise on account of one of those things that are requisite for the notion of virtue in general...

Q1890: Whether temperance is the greatest of the virtues?

As the Philosopher declares "the good of the many is more of the godlike than the good of the individual," wherefore the more a virtue regards the good of the many, the better it is...

OF THE VICES OPPOSED TO TEMPERANCE

Q1891: Whether insensibility is a vice?

Whatever is contrary to the natural order is vicious...

Q1892: Whether intemperance is a childish sin?

A thing is said to be childish for two reasons...

Q1893: Whether cowardice* is a greater vice than intemperance?

One may be compared with another in two ways...

Q1894: Whether intemperance is the most disgraceful of sins?

Disgrace is seemingly opposed to honor and glory...

OF THE PARTS OF TEMPERANCE, IN GENERAL

Q1895: Whether the parts of temperance are rightly assigned?

As stated above, a cardinal virtue may have three kinds of parts, namely integral, subjective, and potential...

OF SHAMEFACEDNESS

Q1896: Whether shamefacedness is a virtue?

Virtue is taken in two ways, in a strict sense and in a broad sense...

Q1897: Whether shamefacedness is about a disgraceful action?

As stated above, when we were treating of the passions, fear is properly about an arduous evil, one, namely, that is difficult to avoid...

Q1898: Whether man is more shamefaced of those who are more closely connected with him?

Since reproach is opposed to honor, just as honor denotes attestation to someone's excellence, especially the excellence which is according to virtue, so too reproach, the fear of which is shamefacedness, denotes attestation to a person's defect, especially that which results from sin...

Q1899: Whether even virtuous men can be ashamed?

As stated above shamefacedness is fear of some disgrace...

OF HONESTY*

Q1900: Whether honesty is the same as virtue?

As Isidore says "honesty means an honorable state," wherefore a thing may be said to be honest through being worthy of honor...

Q1901: Whether the honest is the same as the beautiful?

As may be gathered from the words of Dionysius, beauty or comeliness results from the concurrence of clarity and due proportion...

Q1902: Whether the honest differs from the useful and the pleasant?

The honest concurs in the same subject with the useful and the pleasant, but it differs from them in aspect...

Q1903: Whether honesty should be reckoned a part of temperance?

As stated above, honesty is a kind of spiritual beauty...

OF ABSTINENCE

Q1904: Whether abstinence is a virtue?

Abstinence by its very name denotes retrenchment of food...

Q1905: Whether abstinence is a special virtue?

As stated above moral virtue maintains the good of reason against the onslaught of the passions: hence whenever we find a special motive why a passion departs from the good of reason, there is need of a special virtue...

OF FASTING

Q1906: Whether fasting is an act of virtue?

An act is virtuous through being directed by reason to some virtuous good...

Q1907: Whether fasting is an act of abstinence?

Habit and act have the same matter...

Q1908: Whether fasting is a matter of precept?

Just as it belongs to the secular authority to make legal precepts which apply the natural law to matters of common weal in temporal affairs, so it belongs to ecclesiastical superiors to prescribe by statute those things that concern the common weal of the faithful in spiritual goods.

Q1909: Whether all are bound to keep the fasts of the Church?

As stated above, general precepts are framed according to the requirements of the many...

Q1910: Whether the times for the Church fast are fittingly ascribed?

As stated above, fasting is directed to two things, the deletion of sin, and the raising of the mind to heavenly things...

Q1911: Whether it is requisite for fasting that one eat but once?

Fasting is instituted by the Church in order to bridle concupiscence, yet so as to safeguard nature...

Q1912: Whether the ninth hour is suitably fixed for the faster's meal?

As stated above, fasting is directed to the deletion and prevention of sin...

Q1913: Whether it is fitting that those who fast should be bidden to abstain from flesh meat, eggs, and milk foods?

As stated above, fasting was instituted by the Church in order to bridle the concupiscences of the flesh, which regard pleasures of touch in connection with food and sex...

OF GLUTTONY

Q1914: Whether gluttony is a sin?

Gluttony denotes, not any desire of eating and drinking, but an inordinate desire...

Q1915: Whether gluttony is a mortal sin?

As stated above, the vice of gluttony properly consists in inordinate concupiscence...

Q1916: Whether gluttony is the greatest of sins?

The gravity of a sin may be measured in three ways...

Q1917: Whether the species of gluttony are fittingly distinguished?

As stated above, gluttony denotes inordinate concupiscence in eating...

Q1918: Whether gluttony is a capital vice?

As stated above, a capital vice denotes one from which, considered as final cause, i.e. as having a most desirable end, other vices originate: wherefore through desiring that end men are incited to sin in many ways...

Q1919: Whether six daughters are fittingly assigned to gluttony?

As stated above, gluttony consists properly in an immoderate pleasure in eating and drinking...

OF SOBRIETY

Q1920: Whether drink is the matter of sobriety?

When a virtue is denominated from some condition common to the virtues, the matter specially belonging to it is that in which it is most difficult and most commendable to satisfy that condition of virtue: thus fortitude is about dangers of death, and temperance about pleasures of touch...

Q1921: Whether sobriety is by itself a special virtue?

As stated above, it belongs to moral virtue to safeguard the good of reason against those things which may hinder it...

Q1922: Whether the use of wine is altogether unlawful?

No meat or drink, considered in itself, is unlawful, according to Mat. 15:11, "Not that which goeth into the mouth defileth a man"...

Q1923: Whether sobriety is more requisite in persons of greater standing?

Virtue includes relationship to two things, to the contrary vices which it removes, and to the end to which it leads...

OF DRUNKENNESS

Q1924: Whether drunkenness is a sin?

Drunkenness may be understood in two ways...

Q1925: Whether drunkenness is a mortal sin?

The sin of drunkenness, as stated in the foregoing Article, consists in the immoderate use and concupiscence of wine...

Q1926: Whether drunkenness is the gravest of sins?

A thing is said to be evil because it removes a good...

Q1927: Whether drunkenness excuses from sin?

Two things are to be observed in drunkenness, as stated above, namely the resulting defect and the preceding act. on the part of the resulting defect whereby the use of reason is fettered, drunkenness may be an excuse for sin, in so far as it causes an act to be involuntary through ignorance...

OF CHASTITY

Q1928: Whether chastity is a virtue?

Chastity takes its name from the fact that reason "chastises" concupiscence, which, like a child, needs curbing, as the Philosopher states ...

Q1929: Whether chastity is a general virtue?

The word "chastity" is employed in two ways...

Q1930: Whether chastity is a distinct virtue from abstinence?

As stated above, temperance is properly about the concupiscences of the pleasures of touch: so that where there are different kinds of pleasure, there are different virtues comprised under temperance...

Q1931: Whether purity belongs especially to chastity?

As stated above, "pudicitia" takes its name from "pudor," which signifies shame...

OF VIRGINITY

Q1932: Whether virginity consists in integrity of the flesh?

Virginity takes its name apparently from "viror", and just as a thing is described as fresh and retaining its freshness, so long as it is not parched by excessive heat, so too, virginity denotes that the person possessed thereof is unseared by the heat of concupiscence which is experienced in achieving the greatest bodily pleasure which is that of sexual intercourse...

Q1933: Whether virginity is unlawful?

In human acts, those are sinful which are against right reason...

Q1934: Whether virginity is a virtue?

As stated above, the formal and completive element in virginity is the purpose of abstaining from venereal pleasure, which purpose is rendered praiseworthy by its end, in so far, to wit, as this is done in order to have leisure for Divine things: while the material element in virginity is integrity of the flesh free of all experience of venereal pleasure...

Q1935: Whether virginity is more excellent than marriage?

According to Jerome the error of Jovinian consisted in holding virginity not to be preferable to marriage...

Q1936: Whether virginity is the greatest of virtues?

A thing may excel all others in two ways...

OF LUST

Q1937: Whether the matter of lust is only venereal desires and pleasures?

As Isidore says, "a lustful man is one who is debauched with pleasures"...

Q1938: Whether no venereal act can be without sin?

A sin, in human acts, is that which is against the order of reason...

Q1939: Whether the lust that is about venereal acts can be a sin?

The more necessary a thing is, the more it behooves one to observe the order of reason in its regard; wherefore the more sinful it becomes if the order of reason be forsaken...

Q1940: Whether lust is a capital vice?

As stated above, a capital vice is one that has a very desirable end, so that through desire for that end, a man proceeds to commit many sins, all of which are said to arise from that vice as from a principal vice...

Q1941: Whether the daughters of lust are fittingly described?

When the lower powers are strongly moved towards their objects, the result is that the higher powers are hindered and disordered in their acts...

OF THE PARTS OF LUST

Q1942: Whether six species are fittingly assigned to lust?

As stated above, the sin of lust consists in seeking venereal pleasure not in accordance with right reason...

Q1943: Whether simple fornication is a mortal sin?

Without any doubt we must hold simple fornication to be a mortal sin, notwithstanding that a gloss on Dt. 23:17, says: "This is a prohibition against going with whores, whose vileness is venial"...

Q1944: Whether fornication is the most grievous of sins?

The gravity of a sin may be measured in two ways, first with regard to the sin in itself, secondly with regard to some accident...

Q1945: Whether there can be mortal sin in touches and kisses?

A thing is said to be a mortal sin in two ways...

Q1946: Whether nocturnal pollution is a mortal sin?

Nocturnal pollution may be considered in two ways...

Q1947: Whether seduction should be reckoned a species of lust?

When the matter of a vice has a special deformity, we must reckon it to be a determinate species of that vice...

Q1948: Whether rape is a species of lust, distinct from seduction?

Rape, in the sense in which we speak of it now, is a species of lust: and sometimes it coincides with seduction; sometimes there is rape without seduction, and sometimes seduction without rape.

Q1949: Whether adultery is determinate species of lust, distinct from the other species?

Adultery, as its name implies, "is access to another's marriage-bed " ...

Q1950: Whether incest is a determinate species of lust?

As stated above wherever we find something incompatible with the right use of venereal actions, there must needs be a determinate species of lust...

Q1951: Whether sacrilege can be a species of lust?

As stated above, the act of a virtue or vice, that is directed to the end of another virtue or vice, assumes the latter's species: thus, theft committed for the sake of adultery, passes into the species of adultery...

Q1952: Whether the unnatural vice is a species of lust?

As stated above wherever there occurs a special kind of deformity whereby the venereal act is rendered unbecoming, there is a determinate species of lust...

Q1953: Whether the unnatural vice is the greatest sin among the species of lust?

In every genus, worst of all is the corruption of the principle on which the rest depend...

OF CONTINENCE

Q1954: Whether continence is a virtue?

The word "continence" is taken by various people in two ways...

Q1955: Whether desires for pleasures of touch are the matter of continence?

Continence denotes, by its very name, a certain curbing, in so far as a man contains himself from following his passions...

Q1956: Whether the subject of continence is the concupiscible power?

Every virtue while residing in a subject, makes that subject have a different disposition from that which it has while subjected to the opposite vice...

Q1957: Whether continence is better than temperance?

As stated above, continence has a twofold signification...

OF INCONTINENCE

Q1958: Whether incontinence pertains to the soul or to the body?

Things are ascribed to their direct causes rather than to those which merely occasion them...

Q1959: Whether incontinence is a sin?

Incontinence about a matter may be considered in two ways...

Q1960: Whether the incontinent man sins more gravely than the intemperate?

According to Augustine sin is chiefly an act of the will, because "by the will we sin and live aright" ...

Q1961: Whether the incontinent in anger is worse than the incontinent in desire?

The sin of incontinence may be considered in two ways...

OF CLEMENCY AND MEEKNESS

Q1962: Whether clemency and meekness are absolutely the same?

As stated in Ethic. ii, 3, a moral virtue is "about passions and actions"...

Q1963: Whether both clemency and meekness are virtues?

The nature of moral virtue consists in the subjection of appetite to reason, as the Philosopher declares ...

Q1964: Whether the aforesaid virtues are parts of temperance?

Parts are assigned to the principal virtues, in so far as they imitate them in some secondary matter as to the mode whence the virtue derives its praise and likewise its name...

Q1965: Whether clemency and meekness are the greatest virtues?

Nothing prevents certain virtues from being greatest, not indeed simply, nor in every respect, but in a particular genus...

OF ANGER

Q1966: Whether it is lawful to be angry?

Properly speaking anger is a passion of the sensitive appetite, and gives its name to the irascible power, as stated above when we were treating of the passions...

Q1967: Whether anger is a sin?

Anger, as stated above, is properly the name of a passion...

Q1968: Whether all anger is a mortal sin?

The movement of anger may be inordinate and sinful in two ways, as stated above ...

Q1969: Whether anger is the most grievous sin?

As stated above, the inordinateness of anger is considered in a twofold respect, namely with regard to an undue object, and with regard to an undue mode of being angry...

Q1970: Whether the Philosopher suitably assigns the species of anger?

The aforesaid distinction may be referred either to the passion, or to the sin itself of anger...

Q1971: Whether anger should be reckoned among the capital vices?

As stated above, a capital vice is defined as one from which many vices arise...

Q1972: Whether six daughters are fittingly assigned to anger?

Anger may be considered in three ways...

Q1973: Whether there is a vice opposed to anger resulting from lack of anger?

Anger may be understood in two ways...

OF CRUELTY

Q1974: Whether cruelty is opposed to clemency?

Cruelty apparently takes its name from "cruditas" ...

Q1975: Whether cruelty differs from savagery or brutality?

"Savagery" and "brutality" take their names from a likeness to wild beasts which are also described as savage...

OF MODESTY

Q1976: Whether modesty is a part of temperance?

As stated above, temperance brings moderation into those things wherein it is most difficult to be moderate, namely the concupiscences of pleasures of touch...

Q1977: Whether modesty is only about outward actions?

As stated above, modesty differs from temperance, in that temperance moderates those matters where restraint is most difficult, while modesty moderates those that present less difficulty...

OF HUMILITY

Q1978: Whether humility is a virtue?

As stated above when we were treating of the passions, the difficult good has something attractive to the appetite, namely the aspect of good, and likewise something repulsive to the appetite, namely the difficulty of obtaining it...

Q1979: Whether humility has to do with the appetite?

As stated above, it belongs properly to humility, that a man restrain himself from being borne towards that which is above him...

Q1980: Whether one ought, by humility, to subject oneself to all men?

We may consider two things in man, namely that which is God's, and that which is man's...

Q1981: Whether humility is a part of modesty or temperance?

As stated above, in assigning parts to a virtue we consider chiefly the likeness that results from the mode of the virtue...

Q1982: Whether humility is the greatest of the virtues?

The good of human virtue pertains to the order of reason: which order is considered chiefly in reference to the end: wherefore the theological virtues are the greatest because they have the last end for their object...

Q1983: Whether twelve degrees of humility are fittingly distinguished in the Rule of the Blessed Benedict?

As stated above humility has essentially to do with the appetite, in so far as a man restrains the impetuosity of his soul, from tending inordinately to great things: yet its rule is in the cognitive faculty, in that we should not deem ourselves to be above what we are...

OF PRIDE

Q1984: Whether pride is a sin?

Pride is so called because a man thereby aims higher than he is; wherefore Isidore says : "A man is said to be proud, because he wishes to appear above what he really is"; for he who wishes to overstep beyond what he is, is proud...

Q1985: Whether pride is a special sin?

The sin of pride may be considered in two ways...

Q1986: Whether the subject of pride is the irascible faculty?

The subject of any virtue or vice is to be ascertained from its proper object: for the object of a habit or act cannot be other than the object of the power, which is the subject of both...

Q1987: Whether the four species of pride are fittingly assigned by Gregory?

As stated above, pride denotes immoderate desire of one's own excellence, a desire, to wit, that is not in accord with right reason...

Q1988: Whether pride is a mortal sin?

Pride is opposed to humility...

Q1989: Whether pride is the most grievous of sins?

Two things are to be observed in sin, conversion to a mutable good, and this is the material part of sin; and aversion from the immutable good, and this gives sin its formal aspect and complement...

Q1990: Whether pride is the first sin of all?

The first thing in every genus is that which is essential...

Q1991: Whether pride should be reckoned a capital vice?

As stated above pride may be considered in two ways; first in itself, as being a special sin; secondly, as having a general influence towards all sins...

OF THE FIRST MAN'S SIN

Q1992: Whether pride was the first man's first sin?

Many movements may concur towards one sin, and the character of sin attaches to that one in which inordinateness is first found...

Q1993: Whether the first man's pride consisted in his coveting God's likeness?

Likeness is twofold...

Q1994: Whether the sin of our first parents was more grievous than other sins?

There is a twofold gravity to be observed in sin. one results from the very species of the sin: thus we say that adultery is a graver sin than simple fornication...

Q1995: Whether Adam's sin was more grievous than Eve's?

As stated, the gravity of a sin depends on the species rather than on a circumstance of that sin...

OF THE PUNISHMENTS OF THE FIRST MAN'S SIN

Q1996: Whether death is the punishment of our first parents' sin?

If any one, on account of his fault, be deprived of a favor bestowed on him the privation of that favor is a punishment of that fault...

Q1997: Whether the particular punishments of our first parents are suitably appointed in Scripture?

As stated in the foregoing Article, on account of their sin, our first parents were deprived of the Divine favor, whereby the integrity of human nature was maintained in them, and by the withdrawal of this favor human nature incurred penal defects...

OF OUR FIRST PARENTS' TEMPTATION

Q1998: Whether it was fitting for man to be tempted by the devil?

God's wisdom "orders all things sweetly", inasmuch as His providence appoints to each one that which is befitting it according to its nature...

Q1999: Whether the manner and order of the first temptation was fitting?

Man is composed of a twofold nature, intellective and sensitive...

OF STUDIOUSNESS

Q2000: Whether the proper matter of studiousness is knowledge?

Properly speaking, study denotes keen application of the mind to something...

Q2001: Whether studiousness is a part of temperance?

As stated above, it belongs to temperance to moderate the movement of the appetite, lest it tend excessively to that which is desired naturally...

OF CURIOSITY

Q2002: Whether curiosity can be about intellective knowledge?

As stated above studiousness is directly, not about knowledge itself, but about the desire and study in the pursuit of knowledge...

Q2003: Whether the vice of curiosity is about sensitive knowledge?

The knowledge of sensible things is directed to two things...

OF MODESTY AS CONSISTING IN THE OUTWARD MOVEMENTS OF THE BODY

Q2004: Whether any virtue regards the outward movements of the body?

Moral virtue consists in the things pertaining to man being directed by his reason...

Q2005: Whether there can be a virtue about games?

Just as man needs bodily rest for the body's refreshment, because he cannot always be at work, since his power is finite and equal to a certain fixed amount of labor, so too is it with his soul, whose power is also finite and equal to a fixed amount of work...

Q2006: Whether there can be sin in the excess of play?

In all things dirigible according to reason, the excessive is that which goes beyond, and the deficient is that which falls short of the rule of reason...

Q2007: Whether there is a sin in lack of mirth?

In human affairs whatever is against reason is a sin...

OF MODESTY IN THE OUTWARD APPAREL

Q2008: Whether there can be virtue and vice in connection with outward apparel?

It is not in the outward things themselves which man uses, that there is vice, but on the part of man who uses them immoderately...

Q2009: Whether the adornment of women is devoid of mortal sin?

As regards the adornment of women, we must bear in mind the general statements made above concerning outward apparel, and also something special, namely that a woman's apparel may incite men to lust, according to Prov. 7:10, "Behold a woman meeteth him in harlot's attire, prepared to deceive souls"...

OF THE PRECEPTS OF TEMPERANCE

Q2010: Whether the precepts of temperance are suitably given in the Divine law?

As the Apostle says, "the end of the commandment is charity," which is enjoined upon us in the two precepts concerning the love of God and of our neighbor...

Q2011: Whether the precepts of the virtues annexed to temperance are suitably given in the Divine law?

The virtues annexed to temperance may be considered in two ways: first, in themselves; secondly, in their effects...

TREATISE ON GRATUITOUS GRACES

OF PROPHECY

Q2012: Whether prophecy pertains to knowledge?

Prophecy first and chiefly consists in knowledge, because, to wit, prophets know things that are far removed from man's knowledge...

Q2013: Whether prophecy is a habit?

As the Apostle says, "all that is made manifest is light," because, to wit, just as the manifestation of the material sight takes place through material light, so too the manifestation of intellectual sight takes place through intellectual light...

Q2014: Whether prophecy is only about future contingencies?

A manifestation made by means of a certain light can extend to all those things that are subject to that light: thus the body's sight extends to all colors, and the soul's natural knowledge extends to whatever is subject to the light of the active intellect...

Q2015: Whether by the Divine revelation a prophet knows all that can be known prophetically?

Things which differ from one another need not exist simultaneously, save by reason of some one thing in which they are connected and on which they depend: thus it has been stated above that all the virtues must needs exist simultaneously on account of prudence and charity...

Q2016: Whether the prophet always distinguishes what he says by his own spirit from what he says by the prophetic spirit?

The prophet's mind is instructed by God in two ways: in one way by an express revelation, in another way by a most mysterious instinct to "which the human mind is subjected without knowing it," as Augustine says ...

Q2017: Whether things known or declared prophetically can be false?

As may be gathered from what has been said, prophecy is a kind of knowledge impressed under the form of teaching on the prophet's intellect, by Divine revelation...

OF THE CAUSE OF PROPHECY

Q2018: Whether prophecy can be natural?

As stated above prophetic foreknowledge may regard future things in two ways: in one way, as they are in themselves; in another way, as they are in their causes...

Q2019: Whether prophetic revelation comes through the angels?

As the Apostle says, "Things that are of God are well ordered "...

Q2020: Whether a natural disposition is requisite for prophecy?

As stated above, prophecy in its true and exact sense comes from Divine inspiration; while that which comes from a natural cause is not called prophecy except in a relative sense...

Q2021: Whether a good life is requisite for prophecy?

A good life may be considered from two points of view...

Q2022: Whether any prophecy comes from the demons?

As stated above, prophecy denotes knowledge far removed from human knowledge...

Q2023: Whether the prophets of the demons ever foretell the truth?

As the good is in relation to things, so is the true in relation to knowledge...

OF THE MANNER IN WHICH PROPHETIC KNOWLEDGE IS CONVEYED

Q2024: Whether the prophets see the very essence of God?

Prophecy denotes Divine knowledge as existing afar off...

Q2025: Whether, in prophetic revelation, new species of things are impressed on the prophet's mind, or merely a new light?

As Augustine says, "prophetic knowledge pertains most of all to the intellect"...

Q2026: Whether the prophetic vision is always accompanied by abstraction from the senses?

As stated in the foregoing Article, the prophetic revelation takes place in four ways: namely, by the infusion of an intelligible light, by the infusion of intelligible species, by impression or coordination of pictures in the imagination, and by the outward presentation of sensible images...

Q2027: Whether prophets always know the things which they prophesy?

In prophetic revelation the prophet's mind is moved by the Holy Ghost, as an instrument that is deficient in regard to the principal agent...

OF THE DIVISION OF PROPHECY

Q2028: Whether prophecy is fittingly divided into the prophecy of divine predestination, of foreknowledge, and of denunciation?

The species of moral habits and acts are distinguished according to their objects...

Q2029: Whether the prophecy which is accompanied by intellective and imaginative vision is more excellent than that which is accompanied by intellective vision alone?

The excellence of the means is measured chiefly by the end...

Q2030: Whether the degrees of prophecy can be distinguished according to the imaginary vision?

As stated above, the prophecy wherein, by the intelligible light, a supernatural truth is revealed through an imaginary vision, holds the mean between the prophecy wherein a supernatural truth is revealed without imaginary vision, and that wherein through the intelligible light and without an imaginary vision, man is directed to know or do things pertaining to human conduct...

Q2031: Whether Moses was the greatest of the prophets?

Although in some respect one or other of the prophets was greater than Moses, yet Moses was simply the greatest of all...

Q2032: Whether there is a degree of prophecy in the blessed?

Prophecy denotes vision of some supernatural truth as being far remote from us...

Q2033: Whether the degrees of prophecy change as time goes on?

As stated above, prophecy is directed to the knowledge of Divine truth, by the contemplation of which we are not only instructed in faith, but also guided in our actions, according to Ps. 42:3, "Send forth Thy light and Thy truth: they have conducted me"...

OF RAPTURE

Q2034: Whether the soul of man is carried away to things divine?

Rapture denotes violence of a kind as stated above ; and "the violent is that which has its principle without, and in which he that suffers violence concurs not at all" ...

Q2035: Whether rapture pertains to the cognitive rather than to the appetitive power?

We can speak of rapture in two ways...

Q2036: Whether Paul, when in rapture, saw the essence of God?

Some have said that Paul, when in rapture, saw "not the very essence of God, but a certain reflection of His clarity"...

Q2037: Whether Paul, when in rapture, was withdrawn from his senses?

The Divine essence cannot be seen by man through any cognitive power other than the intellect...

Q2038: Whether, while in this state, Paul's soul was wholly separated from his body?

As stated above, in the rapture of which we are speaking now, man is uplifted by God's power, "from that which is according to nature to that which is above nature"...

Q2039: Did Paul know whether his soul were separated from his body?

The true answer to this question must be gathered from the Apostle's very words, whereby he says he knew something, namely that he was "rapt even to the third heaven," and that something he knew not, namely "whether" he were "in the body or out of the body"...

OF THE GRACE OF TONGUES

Q2040: Whether those who received the gift of tongues spoke in every language?

Christ's first disciples were chosen by Him in order that they might disperse throughout the whole world, and preach His faith everywhere, according to Mat. 28:19, "Going . . . teach ye all nations"...

Q2041: Whether the gift of tongues is more excellent than the grace of prophecy?

The gift of prophecy surpasses the gift of tongues, in three ways...

OF THE GRATUITOUS GRACE CONSISTING IN WORDS

Q2042: Whether any gratuitous grace attaches to words?

The gratuitous graces are given for the profit of others, as stated above ...

Q2043: Whether the grace of the word of wisdom and knowledge is becoming to women?

Speech may be employed in two ways: in one way privately, to one or a few, in familiar conversation, and in this respect the grace of the word may be becoming to women; in another way, publicly, addressing oneself to the whole church, and this is not permitted to women...

OF THE GRACE OF MIRACLES

Q2044: Whether there is a gratuitous grace of working miracles?

As stated above, the Holy Ghost provides sufficiently for the Church in matters profitable unto salvation, to which purpose the gratuitous graces are directed...

Q2045: Whether the wicked can work miracles?

Some miracles are not true but imaginary deeds, because they delude man by the appearance of that which is not; while others are true deeds, yet they have not the character of a true miracle, because they are done by the power of some natural cause...

OF THE DIVISION OF LIFE INTO ACTIVE AND CONTEMPLATIVE

Q2046: Whether life is fittingly divided into active and contemplative?

Properly speaking, those things are said to live whose movement or operation is from within themselves...

Q2047: Whether life is adequately divided into active and contemplative?

As stated above, this division applies to the human life as derived from the intellect...

OF THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE

Q2048: Whether the contemplative life has nothing to do with the affections, and pertains wholly to the intellect?

As stated above theirs is said to be the contemplative who are chiefly intent on the contemplation of truth...

Q2049: Whether the moral virtues pertain to the contemplative life?

A thing may belong to the contemplative life in two ways, essentially or dispositively...

Q2050: Whether there are various actions pertaining to the contemplative life?

We are now speaking of the contemplative life as applicable to man...

Q2051: Whether the contemplative life consists in the mere contemplation of God, or also in the consideration of any truth whatever?

As stated above, a thing may belong to the contemplative life in two ways: principally, and secondarily, or dispositively...

Q2052: Whether in the present state of life the contemplative life can reach to the vision of the Divine essence?

As Augustine says, "no one seeing God lives this mortal life wherein the bodily senses have their play: and unless in some way he depart this life, whether by going altogether out of his body, or by withdrawing from his carnal senses, he is not caught up into that vision"...

Q2053: Whether the operation of contemplation is fittingly divided into a threefold movement, circular, straight and oblique?

As stated above, the operation of the intellect, wherein contemplation essentially consists, is called a movement, in so far as movement is the act of a perfect thing, according to the Philosopher ...

Q2054: Whether there is delight in contemplation?

There may be delight in any particular contemplation in two ways...

Q2055: Whether the contemplative life is continuous?

A thing may be described as continuous in two ways: first, in regard to its nature; secondly, in regard to us...

OF THE ACTIVE LIFE

Q2056: Whether all the actions of the moral virtues pertain to the active life?

As stated above the active and the contemplative life differ according to the different occupations of men intent on different ends: one of which occupations is the consideration of the truth; and this is the end of the contemplative life, while the other is external work to which the active life is directed.

Q2057: Whether prudence pertains to the active life?

As stated above, if one thing be directed to another as its end, it is drawn, especially in moral matters, to the species of the thing to which it is directed: for instance "he who commits adultery that he may steal, is a thief rather than an adulterer," according to the Philosopher ...

Q2058: Whether teaching is a work of the active or of the contemplative life?

The act of teaching has a twofold object...

Q2059: Whether the active life remains after this life?

As stated above, the active life has its end in external actions: and if these be referred to the quiet of contemplation, for that very reason they belong to the contemplative life...

OF THE ACTIVE LIFE IN COMPARISON WITH THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE

Q2060: Whether the active life is more excellent than the contemplative?

Nothing prevents certain things being more excellent in themselves, whereas they are surpassed by another in some respect...

Q2061: Whether the active life is of greater merit than the contemplative?

As stated above, the root of merit is charity; and, while, as stated above, charity consists in the love of God and our neighbor, the love of God is by itself more meritorious than the love of our neighbor, as stated above ...

Q2062: Whether the contemplative life is hindered by the active life?

The active life may be considered from two points of view...

Q2063: Whether the active life precedes the contemplative?

A thing is said to precede in two ways...

TREATISE ON THE STATES OF LIFE

OF MAN'S VARIOUS DUTIES AND STATES IN GENERAL

Q2064: Whether the notion of a state denotes a condition of freedom or servitude?

"State," properly speaking, denotes a kind of position, whereby a thing is disposed with a certain immobility in a manner according with its nature...

Q2065: Whether there should be different duties or states in the Church?

The difference of states and duties in the Church regards three things...

Q2066: Whether duties differ according to their actions?

As stated above, difference among the members of the Church is directed to three things: perfection, action, and beauty; and according to these three we may distinguish a threefold distinction among the faithful...

Q2067: Whether the difference of states applies to those who are beginning, progressing, or perfect?

As stated above state regards freedom or servitude...

OF THE STATE OF PERFECTION IN GENERAL

Q2068: Whether the perfection of the Christian life consists chiefly in charity?

A thing is said to be perfect in so far as it attains its proper end, which is the ultimate perfection thereof...

Q2069: Whether any one can be perfect in this life?

As stated above, the perfection of the Christian life consists in charity...

Q2070: Whether, in this life, perfection consists in the observance of the commandments or of the counsels?

Perfection is said to consist in a thing in two ways: in one way, primarily and essentially; in another, secondarily and accidentally...

Q2071: Whether whoever is perfect is in the state of perfection?

As stated above, state properly regards a condition of freedom or servitude...

Q2072: Whether religious and prelates are in the state of perfection?

As stated above, there is required for the state of perfection a perpetual obligation to things pertaining to perfection, together with a certain solemnity...

Q2073: Whether all ecclesiastical prelates are in the state of perfection?

In priests and deacons having cure of souls two things may be considered, namely their order and their cure...

Q2074: Whether the religious state is more perfect than that of prelates?

As Augustine says, "the agent is ever more excellent than the patient"...

Q2075: Whether parish priests and archdeacons are more perfect than religious?

When we compare things in the point of super-eminence, we look not at that in which they agree, but at that wherein they differ...

OF THINGS PERTAINING TO THE EPISCOPAL STATE

Q2076: Whether it is lawful to desire the office of a bishop?

Three things may be considered in the episcopal office...

Q2077: Whether it is lawful for a man to refuse absolutely an appointment to the episcopate?

Two things have to be considered in the acceptance of the episcopal office: first, what a man may fittingly desire according to his own will; secondly, what it behooves a man to do according to the will of another...

Q2078: Whether he that is appointed to the episcopate ought to be better than others?

In designating a man for the episcopal office, something has to be considered on the part of the person designate, and something on the part of the designator...

Q2079: Whether a bishop may lawfully forsake the episcopal cure, in order to enter religion?

The perfection of the episcopal state consists in this that for love of God a man binds himself to work for the salvation of his neighbor, wherefore he is bound to retain the pastoral cure so long as he is able to procure the spiritual welfare of the subjects entrusted to his care: a matter which he must not neglect---neither for the sake of the quiet of divine contemplation, since the Apostle, on account of the needs of his subjects, suffered patiently to be delayed even from the contemplation of the life to come, according to Phil. 1:22-25, "What I shall choose I know not, but I am straitened between two, having a desire to be dissolved, and to be with Christ, a thing by far better...

Q2080: Whether it is lawful for a bishop on account of bodily persecution to abandon the flock committed to his care?

In any obligation the chief thing to be considered is the end of the obligation...

Q2081: Whether it is lawful for a bishop to have property of his own?

No one is bound to works of supererogation, unless he binds himself specially thereto by vow...

Q2082: Whether bishops sin mortally if they distribute not to the poor the ecclesiastical goods which accrue to them?

The same is not to be said of their own goods which bishops may possess, and of ecclesiastical goods...

Q2083: Whether religious who are raised to the episcopate are bound to religious observances?

As stated above the religious state pertains to perfection, as a way of tending to perfection, while the episcopal state pertains to perfection, as a professorship of perfection...

OF THOSE THINGS IN WHICH THE RELIGIOUS STATE PROPERLY CONSISTS

Q2084: Whether religion implies a state of perfection?

As stated above that which is applicable to many things in common is ascribed antonomastically to that to which it is applicable by way of excellence...

Q2085: Whether every religious is bound to keep all the counsels?

A thing pertains to perfection in three ways...

Q2086: Whether poverty is required for religious perfection?

As stated above, the religious state is an exercise and a school for attaining to the perfection of charity...

Q2087: Whether perpetual continence is required for religious perfection?

The religious state requires the removal of whatever hinders man from devoting himself entirely to God's service...

Q2088: Whether obedience belongs to religious perfection?

As stated above the religious state is a school and exercise for tending to perfection...

Q2089: Whether it is requisite for religious perfection that poverty, continence, and obedience should come under a vow?

It belongs to religious to be in the state of perfection, as shown above ...

Q2090: Whether it is right to say that religious perfection consists in these three vows?

The religious state may be considered in three ways...

Q2091: Whether the vow of obedience is the chief of the three religious vows?

The vow of obedience is the chief of the three religious vows, and this for three reasons.

Q2092: Whether a religious sins mortally whenever he transgresses the things contained in his rule?

As stated above, a thing is contained in the rule in two ways...

Q2093: Whether a religious sins more grievously than a secular by the same kind of sin?

A sin committed by a religious may be in three ways more grievous than a like sin committed by a secular...

OF THOSE THINGS THAT ARE COMPETENT TO RELIGIOUS

Q2094: Whether it is lawful for religious to teach, preach, and the like?

A thing is declared to be unlawful to a person in two ways...

Q2095: Whether it is lawful for religious to occupy themselves with secular business?

As stated above, the religious state is directed to the attainment of the perfection of charity, consisting principally in the love of God and secondarily in the love of our neighbor...

Q2096: Whether religious are bound to manual labor?

Manual labor is directed to four things...

Q2097: Whether it is lawful for religious to live on alms?

A man may lawfully live on what is his or due to him...

Q2098: Whether it is lawful for religious to beg?

Two things may be considered in reference to mendicancy...

Q2099: Whether it is lawful for religious to wear coarser clothes than others?

As Augustine says, "in all external things, it is not the use but the intention of the user that is at fault"...

OF THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF RELIGIOUS LIFE

Q2100: Whether there is only one religious order?

As stated above, the religious state is a training school wherein one aims by practice at the perfection of charity...

Q2101: Whether a religious order should be established for the works of the active life?

As stated above, the religious state is directed to the perfection of charity, which extends to the love of God and of our neighbor...

Q2102: Whether a religious order can be directed to soldiering?

As stated above, a religious order may be established not only for the works of the contemplative life, but also for the works of the active life, in so far as they are concerned in helping our neighbor and in the service of God, but not in so far as they are directed to a worldly object...

Q2103: Whether a religious order can be established for preaching or hearing confessions?

As stated above, it is fitting for a religious order to be established for the works of the active life, in so far as they are directed to the good of our neighbor, the service of God, and the upkeep of divine worship...

Q2104: Whether a religious order should be established for the purpose of study?

As stated above, religion may be ordained to the active and to the contemplative life...

Q2105: Whether a religious order that is devoted to the contemplative life is more excellent than on that is given to the active life?

As stated above, the difference between one religious order and another depends chiefly on the end, and secondarily on the exercise...

Q2106: Whether religious perfection is diminished by possessing something in common?

As stated above, perfection consists, essentially, not in poverty, but in following Christ, according to the saying of Jerome : "Since it is not enough to leave all, Peter adds that which is perfect, namely, 'We have followed Thee,'" while poverty is like an instrument or exercise for the attainment of perfection...

Q2107: Whether the religious life of those who live in community is more perfect than that of those who lead a solitary life?

Solitude, like poverty, is not the essence of perfection, but a means thereto...

OF THE ENTRANCE INTO RELIGIOUS LIFE

Q2108: Whether those who are not practiced in keeping the commandments should enter religion?

As shown above, the religious state is a spiritual schooling for the attainment of the perfection of charity...

Q2109: Whether one ought to be bound by vow to enter religion?

As stated above, when we were treating of vows, one and the same work done in fulfilment of a vow is more praiseworthy than if it be done apart from a vow, both because to vow is an act of religion, which has a certain pre-eminence among the virtues, and because a vow strengthens a man's will to do good; and just as a sin is more grievous through proceeding from a will obstinate in evil, so a good work is the more praiseworthy through proceeding from a will confirmed in good by means of a vow...

Q2110: Whether one who is bound by a vow to enter religion is under an obligation of entering religion?

As stated above, when we were treating of vows, a vow is a promise made to God in matters concerning God...

Q2111: Whether he who has vowed to enter religion is bound to remain in religion in perpetuity?

The obligation of a vow proceeds from the will: because "to vow is an act of the will" according to Augustine ...

Q2112: Whether children should be received in religion?

As stated above, the religious vow is twofold...

Q2113: Whether one ought to be withdrawn from entering religion through deference to one's parents?

As stated above when we were treating of piety, parents as such have the character of a principle, wherefore it is competent to them as such to have the care of their children...

Q2114: Whether parish priests may lawfully enter religion?

As stated above, the obligation of a perpetual vow stands before every other obligation...

Q2115: Whether it is lawful to pass from one religious order to another?

It is not commendable to pass from one religious order to another: both because this frequently gives scandal to those who remain; and because, other things being equal, it is easier to make progress in a religious order to which one is accustomed than in one to which one is not habituated...

Q2116: Whether one ought to induce others to enter religion?

Those who induce others to enter religion not only do not sin, but merit a great reward...

Q2117: Whether it is praiseworthy to enter religion without taking counsel of many, and previously deliberating for a long time?

Long deliberation and the advice of many are required in great matters of doubt, as the Philosopher says ; while advice is unnecessary in matters that are certain and fixed...

PROLOGUE

TREATISE ON THE INCARNATION

OF THE FITNESS OF THE INCARNATION

Q2118: Whether it was fitting that God should become incarnate?

To each things, that is befitting which belongs to it by reason of its very nature; thus, to reason befits man, since this belongs to him because he is of a rational nature...

Q2119: Whether it was necessary for the restoration of the human race that the Word of God should become incarnate?

A thing is said to be necessary for a certain end in two ways...

Q2120: Whether, if man had not sinned, God would have become incarnate?

There are different opinions about this question...

Q2121: Whether God became incarnate in order to take away actual sin, rather than to take away original sin?

It is certain that Christ came into this world not only to take away that sin which is handed on originally to posterity, but also in order to take away all sins subsequently added to it; not that all are taken away, but because He offered what was sufficient for blotting out all sins...

Q2122: Whether it was fitting that God should become incarnate in the beginning of the human race?

Since the work of the Incarnation is principally ordained to the restoration of the human race by blotting out sin, it is manifest that it was not fitting for God to become incarnate at the beginning of the human race before sin...

Q2123: Whether the Incarnation ought to have been put off till the end of the world?

As it was not fitting that God should become incarnate at the beginning of the world, so also it was not fitting that the Incarnation should be put off till the end of the world...

OF THE MODE OF UNION OF THE WORD INCARNATE

Q2124: Whether the Union of the Incarnate Word took place in the nature?

To make this question clear we must consider what is "nature"...

Q2125: Whether the union of the Incarnate Word took place in the Person?

Person has a different meaning from "nature"...

Q2126: Whether the union of the Word Incarnate took place in the suppositum or hypostasis?

Some who did not know the relation of hypostasis to person, although granting that there is but one person in Christ, held, nevertheless, that there is one hypostasis of God and another of man, and hence that the union took place in the person and not in the hypostasis...

Q2127: Whether after the Incarnation the Person or Hypostasis of Christ is composite?

The Person or hypostasis of Christ may be viewed in two ways...

Q2128: Whether in Christ there is any union of soul and body?

Christ is called a man univocally with other men, as being of the same species, according to the Apostle, "being made in the likeness of a man"...

Q2129: Whether the human nature was united to the Word of God accidentally?

In evidence of this question we must know that two heresies have arisen with regard to the mystery of the union of the two natures in Christ...

Q2130: Whether the union of the Divine nature and the human is anything created?

The union of which we are speaking is a relation which we consider between the Divine and the human nature, inasmuch as they come together in one Person of the Son of God...

Q2131: Whether union is the same as assumption?

As was stated above, union implies a certain relation of the Divine Nature and the human, according as they come together in one Person...

Q2132: Whether the union of the two natures in Christ is the greatest of all unions?

Union implies the joining of several in some one thing...

Q2133: Whether the union of the Incarnation took place by grace?

As was said above, grace is taken in two ways:--first, as the will of God gratuitously bestowing something; secondly, as the free gift of God...

Q2134: Whether any merits preceded the union of the Incarnation?

With regard to Christ Himself, it is clear from the above that no merits of His could have preceded the union...

Q2135: Whether the grace of union was natural to the man Christ?

According to the Philosopher, nature designates, in one way, nativity; in another, the essence of a thing...

OF THE MODE OF UNION ON THE PART OF THE PERSON ASSUMING

Q2136: Whether it is befitting for a Divine Person to assume?

In the word "assumption" are implied two things, viz. the principle and the term of the act, for to assume is to take something to oneself...

Q2137: Whether it is befitting to the Divine Nature to assume?

As was said above, in the word assumption two things are signified---to wit, the principle and the term of the action...

Q2138: Whether the Nature abstracted from the Personality can assume?

The intellect stands in two ways towards God...

Q2139: Whether one Person without another can assume a created nature?

As was said above, assumption implies two things, viz. the act of assuming and the term of assumption...

Q2140: Whether each of the Divine Persons could have assumed human nature?

As was said above, assumption implies two things, viz. the act of the one assuming and the term of the assumption...

Q2141: Whether several Divine Persons can assume one and the same individual nature?

As was said above, by the union of the soul and body in Christ neither a new person is made nor a new hypostasis, but one human nature is assumed to the Divine Person or hypostasis, which, indeed, does not take place by the power of the human nature, but by the power of the Divine Person...

Q2142: Whether one Divine Person can assume two human natures?

What has power for one thing, and no more, has a power limited to one...

Q2143: Whether it was more fitting that the Person of the Son rather than any other Divine Person should assume human nature?

It was most fitting that the Person of the Son should become incarnate...

OF THE MODE OF UNION ON THE PART OF THE HUMAN NATURE

Q2144: Whether human nature was more assumable by the Son of God than any other nature?

A thing is said to be assumable as being capable of being assumed by a Divine Person, and this capability cannot be taken with reference to the natural passive power, which does not extend to what transcends the natural order, as the personal union of a creature with God transcends it...

Q2145: Whether the Son of God assumed a person?

A thing is said to be assumed inasmuch as it is taken into another...

Q2146: Whether the Divine Person assumed a man?

As has been said above, what is assumed is not the term of the assumption, but is presupposed to the assumption...

Q2147: Whether the Son of God ought to have assumed human nature abstracted from all individuals?

The nature of man or of any other sensible thing, beyond the being which it has in individuals, may be taken in two ways: first, as if it had being of itself, away from matter, as the Platonists held; secondly, as existing in an intellect either human or Divine...

Q2148: Whether the Son of God ought to have assumed human nature in all individuals?

It was unfitting for human nature to be assumed by the Word in all its supposita...

Q2149: Whether it was fitting for the Son of God to assume human nature of the stock of Adam?

As Augustine says : "God was able to assume human nature elsewhere than from the stock of Adam, who by his sin had fettered the whole human race; yet God judged it better to assume human nature from the vanquished race, and thus to vanquish the enemy of the human race"...

OF THE PARTS OF HUMAN NATURE WHICH WERE ASSUMED

Q2150: Whether the Son of God ought to have assumed a true body?

As is said, the Son of God was not born in appearance only, as if He had an imaginary body; but His body was real...

Q2151: Whether the Son of God ought to have assumed a carnal or earthly body?

By the reasons which proved that the body of Christ was not an imaginary one, it may also be shown that it was not a heavenly body...

Q2152: Whether the Son of God assumed a soul?

As Augustine says, it was first of all the opinion of Arius and then of Apollinaris that the Son of God assumed only flesh, without a soul, holding that the Word took the place of a soul to the body...

Q2153: Whether the Son of God assumed a human mind or intellect?

As Augustine says, "the Apollinarists thought differently from the Catholic Church concerning the soul of Christ, saying with the Arians, that Christ took flesh alone, without a soul; and on being overcome on this point by the Gospel witness, they went on to say that the mind was wanting to Christ's soul, but that the Word supplied its place"...

OF THE ORDER OF ASSUMPTION

Q2154: Whether the Son of God assumed flesh through the medium of the soul?

A medium is in reference to a beginning and an end...

Q2155: Whether the Son of God assumed a soul through the medium of the spirit or mind?

As stated above, the Son of God is said to have assumed flesh through the medium of the soul, on account of the order of dignity, and the congruity of the assumption...

Q2156: Whether the soul was assumed before the flesh by the Son of God?

Origen maintained that all souls, amongst which he placed Christ's soul, were created in the beginning...

Q2157: Whether the flesh of Christ was assumed by the Word before being united to the soul?

The human flesh is assumable by the Word on account of the order which it has to the rational soul as to its proper form...

Q2158: Whether the whole human nature was assumed through the medium of the parts?

When anything is said to be a medium in the assumption of the Incarnation, we do not signify order of time, because the assumption of the whole and the parts was simultaneous...

Q2159: Whether the human nature was assumed through the medium of grace?

In Christ there was the grace of union and habitual grace...

OF THE GRACE OF CHRIST AS AN INDIVIDUAL MAN

Q2160: Whether in the Soul of Christ there was any habitual grace?

It is necessary to suppose habitual grace in Christ for three reasons...

Q2161: Whether in Christ there were virtues?

As was said above, as grace regards the essence of the soul, so does virtue regard its power...

Q2162: Whether in Christ there was faith?

As was said above, the object of faith is a Divine thing not seen...

Q2163: Whether in Christ there was hope?

As it is of the nature of faith that one assents to what one sees not, so is it of the nature of hope that one expects what as yet one has not; and as faith, forasmuch as it is a theological virtue, does not regard everything unseen, but only God; so likewise hope, as a theological virtue, has God Himself for its object, the fruition of Whom man chiefly expects by the virtue of hope; yet, in consequence, whoever has the virtue of hope may expect the Divine aid in other things, even as he who has the virtue of faith believes God not only in Divine things, but even in whatsoever is divinely revealed...

Q2164: Whether in Christ there were the gifts?

As was said above, the gifts, properly, are certain perfections of the soul's powers, inasmuch a these have a natural aptitude to be moved by the Holy Ghost, according to Luke 4:1: "And Jesus, being full of the Holy Ghost, returned from the Jordan, and was led by the Spirit into the desert"...

Q2165: Whether in Christ there was the gift of fear?

As was said above, fear regards two objects, one of which is an evil causing terror; the other is that by whose power an evil can be inflicted, as we fear the king inasmuch as he has the power of putting to death...

Q2166: Whether the gratuitous graces were in Christ?

As was said above, the gratuitous graces are ordained for the manifestation of faith and spiritual doctrine...

Q2167: Whether in Christ there was the gift of prophecy?

A prophet means, as it were, a teller or seer of far-off things, inasmuch as he knows and announces what things are far from men's senses, as Augustine says ...

Q2168: Whether in Christ there was the fulness of grace?

To have fully is to have wholly and perfectly...

Q2169: Whether the fulness of grace is proper to Christ?

The fulness of grace may be taken in two ways: First, on the part of grace itself, or secondly on the part of the one who has grace...

Q2170: Whether the grace of Christ is infinite?

As was made clear above, a twofold grace may be considered in Christ; the first being the grace of union, which, as was said, is for Him to be personally united to the Son of God, which union has been bestowed gratis on the human nature; and it is clear that this grace is infinite, as the Person of God is infinite...

Q2171: Whether the grace of Christ could increase?

For a form to be incapable of increase happens in two ways: First on the part of the subject; secondly, on the part of the form itself...

Q2172: Whether the habitual grace of Christ followed after the union?

The union of the human nature with the Divine Person, which, as we have said above, is the grace of union, precedes the habitual grace of Christ, not in order of time, but by nature and in thought; and this for a triple reason: First, with reference to the order of the principles of both...

OF THE GRACE OF CHRIST, AS HE IS THE HEAD OF THE CHURCH

Q2173: Whether Christ is the Head of the Church?

As the whole Church is termed one mystic body from its likeness to the natural body of a man, which in divers members has divers acts, as the Apostle teaches, so likewise Christ is called the Head of the Church from a likeness with the human head, in which we may consider three things, viz. order, perfection, and power: "Order," indeed; for the head is the first part of man, beginning from the higher part; and hence it is that every principle is usually called a head according to Ezech. 16:25: "At every head of the way, thou hast set up a sign of thy prostitution"---"Perfection," inasmuch as in the head dwell all the senses, both interior and exterior, whereas in the other members there is only touch, and hence it is said : "The aged and honorable, he is the head"---"Power," because the power and movement of the other members, together with the direction of them in their acts, is from the head, by reason of the sensitive and motive power there ruling; hence the ruler is called the head of a people, according to 1 Kings 15:17: "When thou wast a little one in thy own eyes, wast thou not made the head of the tribes of Israel?" Now these three things belong spiritually to Christ...

Q2174: Whether Christ is the Head of men as to their bodies or only as to their souls?

The human body has a natural relation to the rational soul, which is its proper form and motor...

Q2175: Whether Christ is the Head of all men?

This is the difference between the natural body of man and the Church's mystical body, that the members of the natural body are all together, and the members of the mystical are not all together---neither as regards their natural being, since the body of the Church is made up of the men who have been from the beginning of the world until its end---nor as regards their supernatural being, since, of those who are at any one time, some there are who are without grace, yet will afterwards obtain it, and some have it already...

Q2176: Whether Christ is the Head of the angels?

As was said above, where there is one body we must allow that there is one head...

Q2177: Whether the grace of Christ, as Head of the Church, is the same as His habitual grace, inasmuch as He is Man?

Since everything acts inasmuch as it is a being in act, it must be the same act whereby it is in act and whereby it acts, as it is the same heat whereby fire is hot and whereby it heats...

Q2178: Whether it is proper to Christ to be Head of the Church?

The head influences the other members in two ways...

Q2179: Whether the devil is the head of all the wicked?

As was said above, the head not only influences the members interiorly, but also governs them exteriorly, directing their actions to an end...

Q2180: Whether Anti-christ may be called the head of all the wicked?

As was said above, in the head are found three things: order, perfection, and the power of influencing...

OF CHRIST'S KNOWLEDGE IN GENERAL

Q2181: Whether Christ had any knowledge besides the Divine?

As said above, the Son of God assumed an entire human nature, i.e. not only a body, but also a soul, and not only a sensitive, but also a rational soul...

Q2182: Whether Christ had the knowledge which the blessed or comprehensors have?

What is in potentiality is reduced to act by what is in act; for that whereby things are heated must itself be hot...

Q2183: Whether Christ had an imprinted or infused knowledge?

As stated above, it was fitting that the human nature assumed by the Word of God should not be imperfect...

Q2184: Whether Christ had any acquired knowledge?

As is plain from A, nothing that God planted in our nature was wanting to the human nature assumed by the Word of God...

OF THE BEATIFIC KNOWLEDGE OF CHRIST'S SOUL

Q2185: Whether the soul of Christ comprehended the Word or the Divine Essence?

As is plain from what was said earlier, the union of the two natures in the Person of Christ took place in such a way that the properties of both natures remained unconfused, i.e. "the uncreated remained uncreated, and the created remained within the limits of the creature," as Damascene says ...

Q2186: Whether the Son of God knew all things in the Word?

When it is inquired whether Christ knows all things in the Word, "all things" may be taken in two ways: First, properly, to stand for all that in any way whatsoever is, will be, or was done, said, or thought, by whomsoever and at any time...

Q2187: Whether the soul of Christ can know the infinite in the Word?

Knowledge regards only being, since being and truth are convertible...

Q2188: Whether the soul of Christ sees the Word or the Divine Essence more clearly than does any other creature?

The vision of the Divine Essence is granted to all the blessed by a partaking of the Divine light which is shed upon them from the fountain of the Word of God, according to Ecclus. 1:5: "The Word of God on high is the fountain of Wisdom"...

OF THE KNOWLEDGE IMPRINTED OR INFUSED IN THE SOUL OF CHRIST

Q2189: Whether by this imprinted or infused knowledge Christ knew all things?

As was said above, it was fitting that the soul of Christ should be wholly perfected by having each of its powers reduced to act...

Q2190: Whether Christ could use this knowledge by turning to phantasms?

In the state before His Passion Christ was at the same time a wayfarer and a comprehensor, as will be more clearly shown ...

Q2191: Whether this knowledge is collative?

Knowledge may be discursive or collative in two ways...

Q2192: Whether in Christ this knowledge was greater than the knowledge of the angels?

The knowledge imprinted on Christ's soul may be looked at in two ways: First, as regards what it has from the inflowing cause; secondly, as regards what it has from the subject receiving it...

Q2193: Whether this knowledge was habitual?

As stated above, the mode of the knowledge impressed on the soul of Christ befitted the subject receiving it...

Q2194: Whether this knowledge was distinguished by divers habits?

As stated above, the knowledge imprinted on Christ's soul has a mode connatural to a human soul...

OF THE ACQUIRED OR EMPIRIC KNOWLEDGE OF CHRIST'S SOUL

Q2195: Whether Christ knew all things by this acquired or empiric knowledge?

Acquired knowledge is held to be in Christ's soul, as we have said, by reason of the active intellect, lest its action, which is to make things actually intelligible, should be wanting; even as imprinted or infused knowledge is held to be in Christ's soul for the perfection of the passive intellect...

Q2196: Whether Christ advanced in acquired or empiric knowledge?

There is a twofold advancement in knowledge: one in essence, inasmuch as the habit of knowledge is increased; the other in effect---e.g. if someone were with one and the same habit of knowledge to prove to someone else some minor truths at first, and afterwards greater and more subtle conclusions...

Q2197: Whether Christ learned anything from man?

In every genus that which is the first mover is not moved according to the same species of movement; just as the first alterative is not itself altered...

Q2198: Whether Christ received knowledge from the angels?

Since the human soul is midway between spiritual substances and corporeal things, it is perfected naturally in two ways...

OF THE POWER OF CHRIST'S SOUL

Q2199: Whether the soul of Christ had omnipotence?

As was said above in the mystery of the Incarnation the union in person so took place that there still remained the distinction of natures, each nature still retaining what belonged to it...

Q2200: Whether the soul of Christ had omnipotence with regard to the transmutation of creatures?

Two distinctions are here needed. of these the first is with respect to the transmutation of creatures, which is three-fold...

Q2201: Whether the soul of Christ had omnipotence with regard to His own body?

As stated above, Christ's soul may be viewed in two ways...

Q2202: Whether the soul of Christ had omnipotence as regards the execution of His will?

Christ's soul willed things in two ways...

OF THE DEFECTS OF BODY ASSUMED BY THE SON OF GOD

Q2203: Whether the Son of God in human nature ought to have assumed defects of body?

It was fitting for the body assumed by the Son of God to be subject to human infirmities and defects; and especially for three reasons...

Q2204: Whether Christ was of necessity subject to these defects?

Necessity is twofold. one is a necessity of "constraint," brought about by an external agent; and this necessity is contrary to both nature and will, since these flow from an internal principle...

Q2205: Whether Christ contracted these defects?

In the verb "to contract" is understood the relation of effect to cause, i.e. that is said to be contracted which is derived of necessity together with its cause...

Q2206: Whether Christ ought to have assumed all the bodily defects of men?

As stated above, Christ assumed human defects in order to satisfy for the sin of human nature, and for this it was necessary for Him to have the fulness of knowledge and grace in His soul...

OF THE DEFECTS OF SOUL ASSUMED BY CHRIST

Q2207: Whether there was sin in Christ?

As was said above, Christ assumed our defects that He might satisfy for us, that He might prove the truth of His human nature, and that He might become an example of virtue to us...

Q2208: Whether there was the "fomes" of sin in Christ?

As was said above, Christ had grace and all the virtues most perfectly...

Q2209: Whether in Christ there was ignorance?

As there was the fulness of grace and virtue in Christ, so too there was the fulness of all knowledge, as is plain from what has been said above ...

Q2210: Whether Christ's soul was passible?

A soul placed in a body may suffer in two ways: first with a bodily passion; secondly, with an animal passion...

Q2211: Whether there was sensible pain in Christ?

As is plain from what has been said earlier, for true bodily pain are required bodily hurt and the sense of hurt...

Q2212: Whether there was sorrow in Christ?

As was said above, by Divine dispensation the joy of contemplation remained in Christ's mind so as not to overflow into the sensitive powers, and thereby shut out sensible pain...

Q2213: Whether there was fear in Christ?

As sorrow is caused by the apprehension of a present evil, so also is fear caused by the apprehension of a future evil...

Q2214: Whether there was wonder in Christ?

Wonder properly regards what is new and unwonted...

Q2215: Whether there was anger in Christ?

As was said earlier, anger is an effect of sorrow...

Q2216: Whether Christ was at once a wayfarer and a comprehensor?

A man is called a wayfarer from tending to beatitude, and a comprehensor from having already obtained beatitude, according to 1 Cor. 9:24: "So run that you may comprehend "; and Phil. 3:12: "I follow after, if by any means I may comprehend "...

OF THOSE THINGS WHICH ARE APPLICABLE TO CHRIST IN HIS BEING AND BECOMING

Q2217: Whether this is true: "God is man"?

This proposition "God is man," is admitted by all Christians, yet not in the same way by all...

Q2218: Whether this is true: "Man is God"?

Granted the reality of both natures, i.e...

Q2219: Whether Christ can be called a lordly man?

As was said above, when we say "the Man Christ Jesus," we signify the eternal suppositum, which is the Person of the Son of God, because there is only one suppositum of both natures...

Q2220: Whether what belongs to the human nature can be predicated of God?

On this question there was a difference of opinion between Nestorians and Catholics...

Q2221: Whether what belongs to the human nature can be predicated of the Divine Nature?

What belongs to one cannot be said of another, unless they are both the same; thus "risible" can be predicated only of man...

Q2222: Whether this is true: "God was made man"?

A thing is said to be made that which begins to be predicated of it for the first time...

Q2223: Whether this is true: "Man was made God"?

This proposition, Man was made God, may be understood in three ways...

Q2224: Whether this is true: "Christ is a creature"?

As Jerome says, "words spoken amiss lead to heresy"; hence with us and heretics the very words ought not to be in common, lest we seem to countenance their error...

Q2225: Whether this Man, i.e. Christ, began to be?

We must not say that "this Man"---pointing to Christ---"began to be," unless we add something...

Q2226: Whether this is true: "Christ as Man is a creature"?

When we say "Christ as Man" this word "man" may be added in the reduplication, either by reason of the suppositum or by reason of the nature...

Q2227: Whether this is true: "Christ as Man is God"?

This term "man" when placed in the reduplication may be taken in two ways...

Q2228: Whether this is true: "Christ as Man is a hypostasis or person"?

As was said, the term "Man" placed in the reduplication may refer either to the suppositum or to the nature...

OF CHRIST'S UNITY OF BEING

Q2229: Whether Christ is one or two?

Nature, considered in itself, as it is used in the abstract, cannot truly be predicated of the suppositum or person, except in God, in Whom "what it is" and "whereby it is" do not differ, as stated earlier...

Q2230: Whether there is only one being in Christ?

Because in Christ there are two natures and one hypostasis, it follows that things belonging to the nature in Christ must be two; and that those belonging to the hypostasis in Christ must be only one...

OF CHRIST'S UNITY OF WILL

Q2231: Whether there are two wills in Christ?

Some placed only one will in Christ; but they seem to have had different motives for holding this...

Q2232: Whether in Christ there was a will of sensuality besides the will of reason?

As was said, the Son of God assumed human nature together with everything pertaining to the perfection of human nature...

Q2233: Whether in Christ there were two wills as regards the reason?

As stated above, the will is sometimes taken for the power, and sometimes for the act...

Q2234: Whether there was free-will in Christ?

As was said above, there was a twofold act of the will in Christ; one whereby He was drawn to anything willed in itself, which implies the nature of an end; the other whereby His will was drawn to anything willed on account of its being ordained to another---which pertains to the nature of means...

Q2235: Whether the human will of Christ was altogether conformed to the Divine will in the thing willed?

As was said, in Christ according to His human nature there is a twofold will, viz. the will of sensuality, which is called will by participation, and the rational will, whether considered after the manner of nature, or after the manner of reason...

Q2236: Whether there was contrariety of wills in Christ?

Contrariety can exist only where there is opposition in the same and as regards the same...

OF THE UNITY OF CHRIST'S OPERATION

Q2237: Whether in Christ there is only one operation of the Godhead and Manhood?

As was said above, the aforesaid heretics who placed one will in Christ placed one operation in Christ...

Q2238: Whether in Christ there are several human operations?

Since it is by his reason that man is what he is; that operation is called human simply, which proceeds from the reason through the will, which is the rational appetite...

Q2239: Whether the human action of Christ could be meritorious to Him?

To have any good thing of oneself is more excellent than to have it from another, for "what is of itself a cause is always more excellent than what is a cause through another," as is said Phys. viii, 5...

Q2240: Whether Christ could merit for others?

As stated above, grace was in Christ not merely as in an individual, but also as in the Head of the whole Church, to Whom all are united, as members to a head, who constitute one mystical person...

OF CHRIST'S SUBJECTION TO THE FATHER

Q2241: Whether we may say that Christ is subject to the Father?

Whoever has a nature is competent to have what is proper to that nature...

Q2242: Whether Christ is subject to Himself?

As was said above, to be master or servant is attributed to a person or hypostasis according to a nature...

OF CHRIST'S PRAYER

Q2243: Whether it is becoming of Christ to pray?

As was said earlier, prayer is the unfolding of our will to God, that He may fulfill it...

Q2244: Whether it pertains to Christ to pray according to His sensuality?

To pray according to sensuality may be understood in two ways...

Q2245: Whether it was fitting that Christ should pray for Himself?

Christ prayed for Himself in two ways...

Q2246: Whether Christ's prayer was always heard?

As stated above, prayer is a certain manifestation of the human will...

OF THE PRIESTHOOD OF CHRIST

Q2247: Whether it is fitting that Christ should be a priest?

The office proper to a priest is to be a mediator between God and the people: to wit, inasmuch as He bestows Divine things on the people, wherefore "sacerdos" means a giver of sacred things, according to Malachi 2:7: "They shall seek the law at his," i.e. the priest's, "mouth"; and again, forasmuch as he offers up the people's prayers to God, and, in a manner, makes satisfaction to God for their sins; wherefore the Apostle says : "Every high-priest taken from among men is ordained for men in the things that appertain to God, that he may offer up gifts and sacrifices for sins"...

Q2248: Whether Christ was Himself both priest and victim?

As Augustine says : "Every visible sacrifice is a sacrament, that is a sacred sign, of the invisible sacrifice"...

Q2249: Whether the effect of Christ's priesthood is the expiation of sins?

Two things are required for the perfect cleansing from sins, corresponding to the two things comprised in sin---namely, the stain of sin and the debt of punishment...

Q2250: Whether the effect of the priesthood of Christ pertained not only to others, but also to Himself?

As stated above, a priest is set between God and man...

Q2251: Whether the priesthood of Christ endures for ever?

In the priestly office, we may consider two things: first, the offering of the sacrifice; secondly, the consummation of the sacrifice, consisting in this, that those for whom the sacrifice is offered, obtain the end of the sacrifice...

Q2252: Whether the priesthood of Christ was according to the order of Melchisedech?

As stated above the priesthood of the Law was a figure of the priesthood of Christ, not as adequately representing the reality, but as falling far short thereof: both because the priesthood of the Law did not wash away sins, and because it was not eternal, as the priesthood of Christ...

OF ADOPTION AS BEFITTING TO CHRIST

Q2253: Whether it is fitting that God should adopt sons?

A man adopts someone as his son forasmuch as out of goodness he admits him as heir to his estate...

Q2254: Whether it is fitting that the whole Trinity should adopt?

There is this difference between an adopted son of God and the natural Son of God, that the latter is "begotten not made"; whereas the former is made, according to Jn. 1:12: "He gave them power to be made the sons of God"...

Q2255: Whether it is proper to the rational nature to be adopted?

As stated above, the sonship of adoption is a certain likeness of natural sonship...

Q2256: Whether Christ as man is the adopted Son of God?

Sonship belongs properly to the hypostasis or person, not to the nature; whence we have stated that Filiation is a personal property...

OF THE PREDESTINATION OF CHRIST

Q2257: Whether it is befitting that Christ should be predestinated?

As is clear from what has been said earlier, predestination, in its proper sense, is a certain Divine preordination from eternity of those things which are to be done in time by the grace of God...

Q2258: Whether this proposition is false: "Christ as man was predestinated to be the Son of God"?

Two things may be considered in predestination...

Q2259: Whether Christ's predestination is the exemplar of ours?

Predestination may be considered in two ways...

Q2260: Whether Christ's predestination is the cause of ours?

If we consider predestination on the part of the very act of predestinating, then Christ's predestination is not the cause of ours; because by one and the same act God predestinated both Christ and us...

OF THE ADORATION OF CHRIST

Q2261: Whether Christ's humanity and Godhead are to be adored with the same adoration?

We may consider two things in a person to whom honor is given: the person himself, and the cause of his being honored...

Q2262: Whether Christ's humanity should be adored with the adoration of "latria"?

As stated above adoration is due to the subsisting hypostasis: yet the reason for honoring may be something non-subsistent, on account of which the person, in whom it is, is honored...

Q2263: Whether the image of Christ should be adored with the adoration of "latria"?

As the Philosopher says, there is a twofold movement of the mind towards an image: one indeed towards the image itself as a certain thing; another, towards the image in so far as it is the image of something else...

Q2264: Whether Christ's cross should be worshipped with the adoration of "latria"?

As stated above, honor or reverence is due to a rational creature only; while to an insensible creature, no honor or reverence is due save by reason of a rational nature...

Q2265: Whether the Mother of God should be worshipped with the adoration of "latria"?

Since "latria" is due to God alone, it is not due to a creature so far as we venerate a creature for its own sake...

Q2266: Whether any kind of worship is due to the relics of the saints?

As Augustine says : "If a father's coat or ring, or anything else of that kind, is so much more cherished by his children, as love for one's parents is greater, in no way are the bodies themselves to be despised, which are much more intimately and closely united to us than any garment; for they belong to man's very nature"...

OF CHRIST AS CALLED THE MEDIATOR OF GOD AND MAN

Q2267: Whether it is proper to Christ to be the Mediator of God and man?

Properly speaking, the office of a mediator is to join together and unite those between whom he mediates: for extremes are united in the mean ...

Q2268: Whether Christ, is the Mediator of God and men?

We may consider two things in a mediator: first, that he is a mean; secondly, that he unites others...

OF THE SANCTIFICATION OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN

Q2269: Whether the Blessed Virgin was sanctified before her birth from the womb?

Nothing is handed down in the canonical Scriptures concerning the sanctification of the Blessed Mary as to her being sanctified in the womb; indeed, they do not even mention her birth...

Q2270: Whether the Blessed Virgin was sanctified before animation?

The sanctification of the Blessed Virgin cannot be understood as having taken place before animation, for two reasons...

Q2271: Whether the Blessed Virgin was cleansed from the infection of the fomes?

On this point there are various opinions...

Q2272: Whether by being sanctified in the womb the Blessed Virgin was preserved from all actual sin?

God so prepares and endows those, whom He chooses for some particular office, that they are rendered capable of fulfilling it, according to 2 Cor. 3:6: "hath made us fit ministers of the New Testament"...

Q2273: Whether, by her sanctification in the womb, the Blessed Virgin received the fulness of grace?

In every genus, the nearer a thing is to the principle, the greater the part which it has in the effect of that principle, whence Dionysius says that angels, being nearer to God, have a greater share than men, in the effects of the Divine goodness...

Q2274: Whether after Christ, it was proper to the Blessed Virgin to be sanctified in the womb?

Augustine seems to speak dubiously of their sanctification in the womb...

OF THE VIRGINITY OF THE MOTHER OF GOD

Q2275: Whether the Mother of God was a virgin in conceiving Christ?

We must confess simply that the Mother of Christ was a virgin in conceiving for to deny this belongs to the heresy of the Ebionites and Cerinthus, who held Christ to be a mere man, and maintained that He was born of both sexes.

Q2276: Whether Christ's Mother was a virgin in His birth?

Without any doubt whatever we must assert that the Mother of Christ was a virgin even in His Birth: for the prophet says not only: "Behold a virgin shall conceive," but adds: "and shall bear a son"...

Q2277: Whether Christ's Mother remained a virgin after His birth?

Without any hesitation we must abhor the error of Helvidius, who dared to assert that Christ's Mother, after His Birth, was carnally known by Joseph, and bore other children...

Q2278: Whether the Mother of God took a vow of virginity?

As we have stated earlier, works of perfection are more praiseworthy when performed in fulfilment of a vow...

OF THE ESPOUSALS OF THE MOTHER OF GOD

Q2279: Whether Christ should have been born of an espoused virgin?

It was fitting that Christ should be born of an espoused virgin; first, for His own sake; secondly, for His Mother's sake; thirdly, for our sake...

Q2280: Whether there was a true marriage between Mary and Joseph?

Marriage or wedlock is said to be true by reason of its attaining its perfection...

OF THE ANNUNCIATION OF THE BLESSED VIRGIN

Q2281: Whether it was necessary to announce to the Blessed Virgin that which was to be done in her?

It was reasonable that it should be announced to the Blessed Virgin that she was to conceive Christ...

Q2282: Whether the annunciation should have been made by an angel to the Blessed Virgin?

It was fitting for the mystery of the Incarnation to be announced to the Mother of God by an angel, for three reasons...

Q2283: Whether the angel of annunciation should have appeared to the Virgin in a bodily vision?

The angel of the Annunciation appeared in a bodily vision to the Blessed Virgin...

Q2284: Whether the Annunciation took place in becoming order?

The Annunciation was made by the angel in a becoming manner...

OF THE MATTER FROM WHICH THE SAVIOUR'S BODY WAS CONCEIVED

Q2285: Whether the flesh of Christ was derived from Adam?

Christ assumed human nature in order to cleanse it of corruption...

Q2286: Whether Christ took flesh of the seed of David?

Christ is said to have been the son especially of two of the patriarchs, Abraham and David, as is clear from Mat. 1:1...

Q2287: Whether Christ's genealogy is suitably traced by the evangelists?

As is written, "All Holy Scripture is inspired of God, etc...

Q2288: Whether the matter of Christ's body should have been taken from a woman?

Although the Son of God could have taken flesh from whatever matter He willed, it was nevertheless most becoming that He should take flesh from a woman...

Q2289: Whether the flesh of Christ was conceived of the Virgin's purest blood?

As stated above, in Christ's conception His being born of a woman was in accordance with the laws of nature, but that He was born of a virgin was above the laws of nature...

Q2290: Whether Christ's body was in Adam and the other patriarchs, as to something signate?

As stated above, the matter of Christ's body was not the flesh and bones of the Blessed Virgin, nor anything that was actually a part of her body, but her blood which was her flesh potentially...

Q2291: Whether Christ's flesh in the patriarchs was infected by sin?

When we say that Christ or His flesh was in Adam and the other patriarchs, we compare Him, or His flesh, to Adam and the other patriarchs...

Q2292: Whether Christ paid tithes in Abraham's loins?

It behooves us to say that the sense of the passage quoted from the Apostle is that Christ did not pay tithes in Abraham...

OF THE ACTIVE PRINCIPLE IN CHRIST'S CONCEPTION

Q2293: Whether the accomplishment of Christ's conception should be attributed to the Holy Ghost?

The whole Trinity effected the conception of Christ's body: nevertheless, this is attributed to the Holy Ghost, for three reasons...

Q2294: Whether it should be said that Christ was conceived of the Holy Ghost?

Conception is not attributed to Christ's body alone, but also to Christ Himself by reason of His body...

Q2295: Whether the Holy Ghost should be called Christ's father in respect of His humanity?

The words "fatherhood," "motherhood," and "sonship," result from generation; yet not from any generation, but from that of living things, especially animals...

Q2296: Whether the Blessed Virgin cooperated actively in the conception of Christ's body?

Some say that the Blessed Virgin cooperated actively in Christ's conception, both by natural and by a supernatural power...

OF THE MODE AND ORDER OF CHRIST'S CONCEPTION

Q2297: Whether Christ's body was formed in the first instant of its conception?

In the conception of Christ's body three points may be considered: first, the local movement of the blood to the place of generation; secondly, the formation of the body from that matter; thirdly, the development whereby it was brought to perfection of quantity...

Q2298: Whether Christ's body was animated in the first instant of its conception?

For the conception to be attributed to the very Son of God, as we confess in the Creed, when we say, "who was conceived by the Holy Ghost," we must needs say that the body itself, in being conceived, was assumed by the Word of God...

Q2299: Whether Christ's flesh was first of all conceived and afterwards assumed?

As stated above, we may say properly that "God was made man," but not that "man was made God": because God took to Himself that which belongs to man---and that which belongs to man did not pre-exist, as subsisting in itself, before being assumed by the Word...

Q2300: Whether Christ's conception was natural?

As Ambrose says : "In this mystery thou shalt find many things that are natural, and many that are supernatural"...

OF THE PERFECTION OF THE CHILD CONCEIVED

Q2301: Whether Christ was sanctified in the first instant of His conception?

As stated above, the abundance of grace sanctifying Christ's soul flows from the very union of the Word, according to Jn. 1:14: "We saw His glory . . . as it were of the Only-Begotten of the Father, full of grace and truth"...

Q2302: Whether Christ as man had the use of free-will in the first instant of His conception?

As stated above, spiritual perfection was becoming to the human nature which Christ took, which perfection He attained not by making progress, but by receiving it from the very first...

Q2303: Whether Christ could merit in the first instant of His conception?

As stated above, Christ was sanctified by grace in the first instant of His conception...

Q2304: Whether Christ was a perfect comprehensor in the first instant of His conception?

As appears from what was said above, it was unbecoming that in His conception Christ should receive merely habitual grace without the act...

OF CHRIST'S NATIVITY

Q2305: Whether nativity regards the nature rather than the person?

Nativity can be attributed to someone in two ways: first, as to its subject; secondly, as to its terminus...

Q2306: Whether a temporal nativity should be attributed to Christ?

As stated above, nature is compared to nativity, as the terminus to movement or change...

Q2307: Whether the Blessed Virgin can be called Christ's Mother in respect of His temporal nativity?

The Blessed Virgin Mary is in truth and by nature the Mother of Christ...

Q2308: Whether the Blessed Virgin should be called the Mother of God?

As stated above, every word that signifies a nature in the concrete can stand for any hypostasis of that nature...

Q2309: Whether there are two filiations in Christ?

Opinions differ on this question...

Q2310: Whether Christ was born without His Mother suffering?

The pains of childbirth are caused by the infant opening the passage from the womb...

Q2311: Whether Christ should have been born in Bethlehem?

Christ willed to be born in Bethlehem for two reasons...

Q2312: Whether Christ was born at a fitting time?

There is this difference between Christ and other men, that, whereas they are born subject to the restrictions of time, Christ, as Lord and Maker of all time, chose a time in which to be born, just as He chose a mother and a birthplace...

OF THE MANIFESTATION OF THE NEWLY BORN CHRIST

Q2313: Whether Christ's birth should have been made known to all?

It was unfitting that Christ's birth should be made known to all men without distinction...

Q2314: Whether Christ's birth should have been made known to some?

As the Apostle says "what is of God is well ordered"...

Q2315: Whether those to whom Christ's birth was made known were suitably chosen?

Salvation, which was to be accomplished by Christ, concerns all sorts and conditions of men: because, as it is written, in Christ "there is neither male nor female, neither Gentile nor Jew . . . bond nor free," and so forth...

Q2316: Whether Christ Himself should have made His birth known?

Christ's birth was ordered unto man's salvation, which is by faith...

Q2317: Whether Christ's birth should have been manifested by means of the angels and the star?

As knowledge is imparted through a syllogism from something which we know better, so knowledge given by signs must be conveyed through things which are familiar to those to whom the knowledge is imparted...

Q2318: Whether Christ's birth was made known in a becoming order?

Christ's birth was first made known to the shepherds on the very day that He was born...

Q2319: Whether the star which appeared to the Magi belonged to the heavenly system?

As Chrysostom says, it is clear, for many reasons, that the star which appeared to the Magi did not belong to the heavenly system...

Q2320: Whether it was becoming that the Magi should come to adore Christ and pay homage to Him?

As stated above, the Magi are the "first-fruits of the Gentiles" that believed in Christ; because their faith was a presage of the faith and devotion of the nations who were to come to Christ from afar...

OF CHRIST'S CIRCUMCISION, AND OF THE OTHER LEGAL OBSERVANCES ACCOMPLISHED IN REGARD TO THE CHILD CHRIST

Q2321: Whether Christ should have been circumcised?

For several reasons Christ ought to have been circumcised...

Q2322: Whether His name was suitably given to Christ?

A name should answer to the nature of a thing...

Q2323: Whether Christ was becomingly presented in the temple?

As stated above, Christ wished to be "made under the Law, that He might redeem them who were under the Law", and that the "justification of the Law might be" spiritually "fulfilled" in His members...

Q2324: Whether it was fitting that the Mother of God should go to the temple to be purified?

As the fulness of grace flowed from Christ on to His Mother, so it was becoming that the mother should be like her Son in humility: for "God giveth grace to the humble," as is written James 4:6...

OF THE BAPTISM OF JOHN

Q2325: Whether it was fitting that John should baptize?

It was fitting for John to baptize, for four reasons: first, it was necessary for Christ to be baptized by John, in order that He might sanctify baptism.

Q2326: Whether the baptism of John was from God?

Two things may be considered in the baptism of John---namely, the rite of baptism and the effect of baptism...

Q2327: Whether grace was given in the baptism of John?

As stated above, the whole teaching and work of John was in preparation for Christ: just as it is the duty of the servant and of the under-craftsman to prepare the matter for the form which is accomplished by the head-craftsman...

Q2328: Whether Christ alone should have been baptized with the baptism of John?

For two reasons it behooved others besides Christ to be baptized with the baptism of John...

Q2329: Whether John's baptism should have ceased after Christ was baptized?

It was not fitting for the baptism of John to cease when Christ had been baptized...

Q2330: Whether those who had been baptized with John's baptism had to be baptized with the baptism of Christ?

According to the opinion of the Master, "those who had been baptized by John without knowing of the existence of the Holy Ghost, and who based their hopes on his baptism, were afterwards baptized with the baptism of Christ: but those who did not base their hope on John's baptism, and who believed in the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost, were not baptized afterwards, but received the Holy Ghost by the imposition of hands made over them by the apostles"...

OF THE BAPTIZING OF CHRIST

Q2331: Whether it was fitting that Christ should be baptized?

It was fitting for Christ to be baptized...

Q2332: Whether it was fitting for Christ to be baptized with John's baptism?

As Augustine says : "After being baptized, the Lord baptized, not with that baptism wherewith He was baptized"...

Q2333: Whether Christ was baptized at a fitting time?

Christ was fittingly baptized in His thirtieth year...

Q2334: Whether Christ should have been baptized in the Jordan?

It was through the river Jordan that the children of Israel entered into the land of promise...

Q2335: Whether the heavens should have been opened unto Christ at His baptism?

As stated above, Christ wished to be baptized in order to consecrate the baptism wherewith we were to be baptized...

Q2336: Whether it is fitting to say that when Christ was baptized the Holy Ghost came down on Him in the form of a dove?

What took place with respect to Christ in His baptism, as Chrysostom says, "is connected with the mystery accomplished in all who were to be baptized afterwards"...

Q2337: Whether the dove in which the Holy Ghost appeared was real?

As stated above, it was unbecoming that the Son of God, who is the Truth of the Father, should make use of anything unreal; wherefore He took, not an imaginary, but a real body...

Q2338: Whether it was becoming, when Christ was baptized that the Father's voice should be heard, bearing witness to the Son?

As stated above, that which is accomplished in our baptism should be manifested in Christ's baptism, which was the exemplar of ours...

OF CHRIST'S MANNER OF LIFE

Q2339: Whether Christ should have associated with men, or led a solitary life?

Christ's manner of life had to be in keeping with the end of His Incarnation, by reason of which He came into the world...

Q2340: Whether it was becoming that Christ should lead an austere life in this world?

As stated above, it was in keeping with the end of the Incarnation that Christ should not lead a solitary life, but should associate with men...

Q2341: Whether Christ should have led a life of poverty in this world?

It was fitting for Christ to lead a life of poverty in this world...

Q2342: Whether Christ conformed His conduct to the Law?

Christ conformed His conduct in all things to the precepts of the Law...

OF CHRIST'S TEMPTATION

Q2343: Whether it was becoming that Christ should be tempted?

Christ wished to be tempted; first that He might strengthen us against temptations...

Q2344: Whether Christ should have been tempted in the desert?

As stated above, Christ of His own free-will exposed Himself to be tempted by the devil, just as by His own free-will He submitted to be killed by His members; else the devil would not have dared to approach Him...

Q2345: Whether Christ's temptation should have taken place after His fast?

It was becoming that Christ should wish to fast before His temptation...

Q2346: Whether the mode and order of the temptation were becoming?

The temptation which comes from the enemy takes the form of a suggestion, as Gregory says ...

OF CHRIST'S DOCTRINE

Q2347: Whether Christ should have preached not only to the Jews, but also to the Gentiles?

It was fitting that Christ's preaching, whether through Himself or through His apostles, should be directed at first to the Jews alone...

Q2348: Whether Christ should have preached to the Jews without offending them?

The salvation of the multitude is to be preferred to the peace of any individuals whatsoever...

Q2349: Whether Christ should have taught all things openly?

Anyone's doctrine may be hidden in three ways...

Q2350: Whether Christ should have committed His doctrine to writing?

It was fitting that Christ should not commit His doctrine to writing...

OF THE MIRACLES WORKED BY CHRIST, IN GENERAL

Q2351: Whether Christ should have worked miracles?

God enables man to work miracles for two reasons...

Q2352: Whether Christ worked miracles by Divine power?

As stated earlier, true miracles cannot be wrought save by Divine power: because God alone can change the order of nature; and this is what is meant by a miracle...

Q2353: Whether Christ began to work miracles when He changed water into wine at the marriage feast?

Christ worked miracles in order to confirm His doctrine, and in order to show forth His Divine power...

Q2354: Whether the miracles which Christ worked were a sufficient proof of His Godhead?

The miracles which Christ worked were a sufficient proof of His Godhead in three respects...

OF MIRACLES CONSIDERED SPECIFICALLY

Q2355: Whether those miracles were fitting which Christ worked in spiritual substances?

The miracles worked by Christ were arguments for the faith which He taught...

Q2356: Whether it was fitting that Christ should work miracles in the heavenly bodies?

As stated above it behooved Christ's miracles to be a sufficient proof of His Godhead...

Q2357: Whether Christ worked miracles fittingly on men?

The means should be proportionate to the end...

Q2358: Whether Christ worked miracles fittingly on irrational creatures?

As stated above, Christ's miracles were ordained to the end that He should be recognized as having Divine power, unto the salvation of mankind...

OF CHRIST'S TRANSFIGURATION

Q2359: Whether it was fitting that Christ should be transfigured?

Our Lord, after foretelling His Passion to His disciples, had exhorted them to follow the path of His sufferings ...

Q2360: Whether this clarity was the clarity of glory?

The clarity which Christ assumed in His transfiguration was the clarity of glory as to its essence, but not as to its mode of being...

Q2361: Whether the witnesses of the transfiguration were fittingly chosen?

Christ wished to be transfigured in order to show men His glory, and to arouse men to a desire of it, as stated above ...

Q2362: Whether the testimony of the Father's voice, saying, "This is My beloved Son," was fittingly added?

The adoption of the sons of God is through a certain conformity of image to the natural Son of God...

THE PASSION OF CHRIST

Q2363: Whether it was necessary for Christ to suffer for the deliverance of the human race?

As the Philosopher teaches, there are several acceptations of the word "necessary"...

Q2364: Whether there was any other possible way of human deliverance besides the Passion of Christ?

A thing may be said to be possible or impossible in two ways: first of all, simply and absolutely; or secondly, from supposition...

Q2365: Whether there was any more suitable way of delivering the human race than by Christ's Passion?

Among means to an end that one is the more suitable whereby the various concurring means employed are themselves helpful to such end...

Q2366: Whether Christ ought to have suffered on the cross?

It was most fitting that Christ should suffer the death of the cross.

Q2367: Whether Christ endured all suffering?

Human sufferings may be considered under two aspects...

Q2368: Whether the pain of Christ's Passion was greater than all other pains?

As we have stated, when treating of the defects assumed by Christ, there was true and sensible pain in the suffering Christ, which is caused by something hurtful to the body: also, there was internal pain, which is caused from the apprehension of something hurtful, and this is termed "sadness"...

Q2369: Whether Christ suffered in His whole soul?

A whole is so termed with respect to its parts...

Q2370: Whether Christ's entire soul enjoyed blessed fruition during the Passion?

As stated above, the whole soul can be understood both according to its essence and according to all its faculties...

Q2371: Whether Christ suffered at a suitable time?

As was observed above, Christ's Passion was subject to His will...

Q2372: Whether Christ suffered in a suitable place?

According to the author of De Qq Vet et Nov Test., qu. lv, "the Saviour did everything in its proper place and season," because, as all things are in His hands, so are all places: and consequently, since Christ suffered at a suitable time, so did He in a suitable place.

Q2373: Whether it was fitting for Christ to be crucified with thieves?

Christ was crucified between thieves from one intention on the part of the Jews, and from quite another on the part of God's ordaining...

Q2374: Whether Christ's Passion is to be attributed to His Godhead?

As stated above, the union of the human nature with the Divine was effected in the Person, in the hypostasis, in the suppositum, yet observing the distinction of natures; so that it is the same Person and hypostasis of the Divine and human natures, while each nature retains that which is proper to it...

OF THE EFFICIENT CAUSE OF CHRIST'S PASSION

Q2375: Whether Christ was slain by another or by Himself?

A thing may cause an effect in two ways: in the first instance by acting directly so as to produce the effect; and in this manner Christ's persecutors slew Him because they inflicted on Him what was a sufficient cause of death, and with the intention of slaying Him, and the effect followed, since death resulted from that cause...

Q2376: Whether Christ died out of obedience?

It was befitting that Christ should suffer out of obedience...

Q2377: Whether God the Father delivered up Christ to the Passion?

As observed above, Christ suffered voluntarily out of obedience to the Father...

Q2378: Whether it was fitting for Christ to suffer at the hands of the Gentiles?

The effect of Christ's Passion was foreshown by the very manner of His death...

Q2379: Whether Christ's persecutors knew who He was?

Among the Jews some were elders, and others of lesser degree...

Q2380: Whether the sin of those who crucified Christ was most grievous?

As stated above, the rulers of the Jews knew that He was the Christ: and if there was any ignorance in them, it was affected ignorance, which could not excuse them...

OF THE EFFICIENCY OF CHRIST'S PASSION

Q2381: Whether Christ's Passion brought about our salvation by way of merit?

As stated above, grace was bestowed upon Christ, not only as an individual, but inasmuch as He is the Head of the Church, so that it might overflow into His members; and therefore Christ's works are referred to Himself and to His members in the same way as the works of any other man in a state of grace are referred to himself...

Q2382: Whether Christ's Passion brought about our salvation by way of atonement?

He properly atones for an offense who offers something which the offended one loves equally, or even more than he detested the offense...

Q2383: Whether Christ's Passion operated by way of sacrifice?

A sacrifice properly so called is something done for that honor which is properly due to God, in order to appease Him: and hence it is that Augustine says : "A true sacrifice is every good work done in order that we may cling to God in holy fellowship, yet referred to that consummation of happiness wherein we can be truly blessed"...

Q2384: Whether Christ's Passion brought about our salvation by way of redemption?

Man was held captive on account of sin in two ways: first of all, by the bondage of sin, because : "Whosoever committeth sin is the servant of sin"; and : "By whom a man is overcome, of the same also he is the slave"...

Q2385: Whether it is proper to Christ to be the Redeemer?

For someone to redeem, two things are required---namely, the act of paying and the price paid...

Q2386: Whether Christ's Passion brought about our salvation efficiently?

There is a twofold efficient agency---namely, the principal and the instrumental...

OF THE EFFECTS OF CHRIST'S PASSION

Q2387: Whether we were delivered from sin through Christ's Passion?

Christ's Passion is the proper cause of the forgiveness of sins in three ways...

Q2388: Whether we were delivered from the devil's power through Christ's Passion?

There are three things to be considered regarding the power which the devil exercised over men previous to Christ's Passion...

Q2389: Whether men were freed from the punishment of sin through Christ's Passion?

Through Christ's Passion we have been delivered from the debt of punishment in two ways...

Q2390: Whether we were reconciled to God through Christ's Passion?

Christ's Passion is in two ways the cause of our reconciliation to God...

Q2391: Whether Christ opened the gate of heaven to us by His Passion?

The shutting of the gate is the obstacle which hinders men from entering in...

Q2392: Whether by His Passion Christ merited to be exalted?

Merit implies a certain equality of justice: hence the Apostle says : "Now to him that worketh, the reward is reckoned according to debt"...

OF THE DEATH OF CHRIST

Q2393: Whether it was fitting that Christ should die?

It was fitting for Christ to die...

Q2394: Whether the Godhead was separated from the flesh when Christ died?

What is bestowed through God's grace is never withdrawn except through fault...

Q2395: Whether in Christ's death there was a severance between His Godhead and His soul?

The soul is united with the Word of God more immediately and more primarily than the body is, because it is through the soul that the body is united with the Word of God, as stated above ...

Q2396: Whether Christ was a man during the three days of His death?

It is an article of faith that Christ was truly dead: hence it is an error against faith to assert anything whereby the truth of Christ's death is destroyed...

Q2397: Whether Christ's was identically the same body living and dead?

The expression "simply" can be taken in two senses...

Q2398: Whether Christ's death conduced in any way to our salvation?

We may speak of Christ's death in two ways, "in becoming" and "in fact"...

OF CHRIST'S BURIAL

Q2399: Whether it was fitting for Christ to be buried?

It was fitting for Christ to be buried...

Q2400: Whether Christ was buried in a becoming manner?

The manner of Christ's burial is shown to be seemly in three respects...

Q2401: Whether Christ's body was reduced to dust in the tomb?

It was not fitting for Christ's body to putrefy, or in any way be reduced to dust, since the putrefaction of any body comes of that body's infirmity of nature, which can no longer hold the body together...

Q2402: Whether Christ was in the tomb only one day and two nights?

The very time during which Christ remained in the tomb shows forth the effect of His death...

OF CHRIST'S DESCENT INTO HELL

Q2403: Whether it was fitting for Christ to descend into hell?

It was fitting for Christ to descend into hell...

Q2404: Whether Christ went down into the hell of the lost?

A thing is said to be in a place in two ways...

Q2405: Whether the whole Christ was in hell?

It is evident from what was said earlier, the masculine gender is referred to the hypostasis or person, while the neuter belongs to the nature...

Q2406: Whether Christ made any stay in hell?

As Christ, in order to take our penalties upon Himself, willed His body to be laid in the tomb, so likewise He willed His soul to descend into hell...

Q2407: Whether Christ descending into hell delivered the holy Fathers from thence?

As stated above, when Christ descended into hell He worked through the power of His Passion...

Q2408: Whether Christ delivered any of the lost from hell?

As stated above, when Christ descended into hell He worked by the power of His Passion...

Q2409: Whether the children who died in original sin were delivered by Christ?

As stated above, Christ's descent into hell had its effect of deliverance on them only who through faith and charity were united to Christ's Passion, in virtue whereof Christ's descent into hell was one of deliverance...

Q2410: Whether Christ by His descent into hell delivered souls from purgatory?

As we have stated more than once, Christ's descent into hell was one of deliverance in virtue of His Passion...

OF CHRIST'S RESURRECTION

Q2411: Whether it was necessary for Christ to rise again?

It behooved Christ to rise again, for five reasons...

Q2412: Whether it was fitting for Christ to rise again on the third day?

As stated above Christ's Resurrection was necessary for the instruction of our faith...

Q2413: Whether Christ was the first to rise from the dead?

Resurrection is a restoring from death to life...

Q2414: Whether Christ was the cause of His own Resurrection?

As stated above in consequence of death Christ's Godhead was not separated from His soul, nor from His flesh...

OF THE QUALITY OF CHRIST RISING AGAIN

Q2415: Whether Christ had a true body after His Resurrection?

As Damascene says : that is said to rise, which fell...

Q2416: Whether Christ's body rose glorified?

Christ's was a glorified body in His Resurrection, and this is evident from three reasons...

Q2417: Whether Christ's body rose again entire?

As stated above, Christ's body in the Resurrection was "of the same nature, but differed in glory"...

Q2418: Whether Christ's body ought to have risen with its scars?

It was fitting for Christ's soul at His Resurrection to resume the body with its scars...

OF THE MANIFESTATION OF THE RESURRECTION

Q2419: Whether Christ's Resurrection ought to have been manifested to all?

Some things come to our knowledge by nature's common law, others by special favor of grace, as things divinely revealed...

Q2420: Whether it was fitting that the disciples should see Him rise again?

As the Apostle says : "Those things that are of God, are well ordered "...

Q2421: Whether Christ ought to have lived constantly with His disciples after the Resurrection?

Concerning the Resurrection two things had to be manifested to the disciples, namely, the truth of the Resurrection, and the glory of Him who rose...

Q2422: Whether Christ should have appeared to the disciples "in another shape"?

As stated above, Christ's Resurrection was to be manifested to men in the same way as Divine things are revealed...

Q2423: Whether Christ should have demonstrated the truth of His Resurrection by proofs?

The word "proof" is susceptible of a twofold meaning: sometimes it is employed to designate any sort "of reason in confirmation of what is a matter of doubt" : and sometimes it means a sensible sign employed to manifest the truth; thus also Aristotle occasionally uses the term in his works ...

Q2424: Whether the proofs which Christ made use of manifested sufficiently the truth of His Resurrection?

Christ manifested His Resurrection in two ways: namely, by testimony; and by proof or sign: and each manifestation was sufficient in its own class...

OF THE CAUSALITY OF CHRIST'S RESURRECTION

Q2425: Whether Christ's Resurrection is the cause of the resurrection of our bodies?

As stated in 2 Metaphysics, text 4: "Whatever is first in any order, is the cause of all that come after it"...

Q2426: Whether Christ's Resurrection is the cause of the resurrection of souls?

As stated above, Christ's Resurrection works in virtue of the Godhead; now this virtue extends not only to the resurrection of bodies, but also to that of souls: for it comes of God that the soul lives by grace, and that the body lives by the soul...

OF THE ASCENSION OF CHRIST

Q2427: Whether it was fitting for Christ to ascend into heaven?

The place ought to be in keeping with what is contained therein...

Q2428: Whether Christ's Ascension into heaven belonged to Him according to His Divine Nature?

The expression "according to" can denote two things; the condition of the one who ascends, and the cause of his ascension...

Q2429: Whether Christ ascended by His own power?

There is a twofold nature in Christ, to wit, the Divine and the human...

Q2430: Whether Christ ascended above all the heavens?

The more fully anything corporeal shares in the Divine goodness, the higher its place in the corporeal order, which is order of place...

Q2431: Whether Christ's body ascended above every spiritual creature?

The more exalted place is due to the nobler subject, whether it be a place according to bodily contact, as regards bodies, or whether it be by way of spiritual contact, as regards spiritual substances; thus a heavenly place which is the highest of places is becomingly due to spiritual substances, since they are highest in the order of substances...

Q2432: Whether Christ's Ascension is the cause of our salvation?

Christ's Ascension is the cause of our salvation in two ways: first of all, on our part; secondly, on His.

OF CHRIST'S SITTING AT THE RIGHT HAND OF THE FATHER

Q2433: Whether it is fitting that Christ should sit at the right hand of God the Father?

The word "sitting" may have a twofold meaning; namely, "abiding" as in Lk. 24:49: "Sit you in the city": and royal or judiciary "power," as in Prov. 20:8: "The king, that sitteth on the throne of judgment, scattereth away all evil with his look"...

Q2434: Whether it belongs to Christ as God to sit at the right hand of the Father?

As may be gathered from what has been said three things can be understood under the expression "right hand"...

Q2435: Whether it belongs to Christ as man to sit at the right hand of the Father?

As stated above, by the expression "right hand" is understood either the glory of His Godhead, or His eternal beatitude, or His judicial and royal power...

Q2436: Whether it is proper to Christ to sit at the right hand of the Father?

As stated above, Christ is said to sit at the Father's right hand inasmuch as He is on equality with the Father in respect of His Divine Nature, while in respect of His humanity, He excels all creatures in the possession of Divine gifts...

OF CHRIST'S JUDICIARY POWER

Q2437: Whether judiciary power is to be specially attributed to Christ?

Three things are required for passing judgment: first, the power of coercing subjects; hence it is written : "Seek not to be made a judge unless thou have strength enough to extirpate iniquities"...

Q2438: Whether judiciary power belongs to Christ as man?

Chrysostom seems to think that judiciary power belongs to Christ not as man, but only as God...

Q2439: Whether Christ acquired His judiciary power by His merits?

There is nothing to hinder one and the same thing from being due to some one from various causes: as the glory of the body in rising was due to Christ not only as befitting His Godhead and His soul's glory, but likewise "from the merit of the lowliness of His Passion" ...

Q2440: Whether judiciary power belongs to Christ with respect to all human affairs?

If we speak of Christ according to His Divine Nature, it is evident that every judgment of the Father belongs to the Son; for, as the Father does all things through His Word, so He judges all things through His Word.

Q2441: Whether after the Judgment that takes place in the present time, there remains yet another General Judgment?

Judgment cannot be passed perfectly upon any changeable subject before its consummation: just as judgment cannot be given perfectly regarding the quality of any action before its completion in itself and in its results: because many actions appear to be profitable, which in their effects prove to be hurtful...

Q2442: Whether Christ's judiciary power extends to the angels?

The angels are subjects of Christ's judiciary power, not only with regard to His Divine Nature, as He is the Word of God, but also with regard to His human nature...

TREATISE ON THE SACRAMENTS

WHAT IS A SACRAMENT?

Q2443: Whether a sacrament is a kind of sign?

All things that are ordained to one, even in different ways, can be denominated from it: thus, from health which is in an animal, not only is the animal said to be healthy through being the subject of health: but medicine also is said to be healthy through producing health; diet through preserving it; and urine, through being a sign of health...

Q2444: Whether every sign of a holy thing is a sacrament?

Signs are given to men, to whom it is proper to discover the unknown by means of the known...

Q2445: Whether a sacrament is a sign of one thing only?

As stated above a sacrament properly speaking is that which is ordained to signify our sanctification...

Q2446: Whether a sacrament is always something sensible?

Divine wisdom provides for each thing according to its mode; hence it is written that "she . . . ordereth all things sweetly": wherefore also we are told that she "gave to everyone according to his proper ability"...

Q2447: Whether determinate things are required for a sacrament?

In the use of the sacraments two things may be considered, namely, the worship of God, and the sanctification of man: the former of which pertains to man as referred to God, and the latter pertains to God in reference to man...

Q2448: Whether words are required for the signification of the sacraments?

The sacraments, as stated above, are employed as signs for man's sanctification...

Q2449: Whether determinate words are required in the sacraments?

As stated above, in the sacraments the words are as the form, and sensible things are as the matter...

Q2450: Whether it is lawful to add anything to the words in which the sacramental form consists?

With regard to all the variations that may occur in the sacramental forms, two points seem to call for our attention...

OF THE NECESSITY OF THE SACRAMENTS

Q2451: Whether sacraments are necessary for man's salvation?

Sacraments are necessary unto man's salvation for three reasons...

Q2452: Whether before sin sacraments were necessary to man?

Sacraments were not necessary in the state of innocence...

Q2453: Whether there should have been sacraments after sin, before Christ?

Sacraments are necessary for man's salvation, in so far as they are sensible signs of invisible things whereby man is made holy...

Q2454: Whether there was need for any sacraments after Christ came?

As the ancient Fathers were saved through faith in Christ's future coming, so are we saved through faith in Christ's past birth and Passion...

OF THE SACRAMENTS' PRINCIPAL EFFECT, WHICH IS GRACE

Q2455: Whether the sacraments are the cause of grace?

We must needs say that in some way the sacraments of the New Law cause grace...

Q2456: Whether sacramental grace confers anything in addition to the grace of the virtues and gifts?

As stated earlier, grace, considered in itself, perfects the essence of the soul, in so far as it is a certain participated likeness of the Divine Nature...

Q2457: Whether the sacraments of the New Law contain grace?

A thing is said to be in another in various ways; in two of which grace is said to be in the sacraments...

Q2458: Whether there be in the sacraments a power of causing grace?

Those who hold that the sacraments do not cause grace save by a certain coincidence, deny the sacraments any power that is itself productive of the sacramental effect, and hold that the Divine power assists the sacraments and produces their effect...

Q2459: Whether the sacraments of the New Law derive their power from Christ's Passion?

As stated above a sacrament in causing grace works after the manner of an instrument...

Q2460: Whether the sacraments of the Old Law caused grace?

It cannot be said that the sacraments of the Old Law conferred sanctifying grace of themselves, i.e. by their own power: since thus Christ's Passion would not have been necessary, according to Gal. 2:21: "If justice be by the Law, then Christ died in vain"...

OF THE OTHER EFFECT OF THE SACRAMENTS, WHICH IS A CHARACTER

Q2461: Whether a sacrament imprints a character on the soul?

As is clear from what has been already stated the sacraments of the New Law are ordained for a twofold purpose; namely, for a remedy against sins; and for the perfecting of the soul in things pertaining to the Divine worship according to the rite of the Christian life...

Q2462: Whether a character is a spiritual power?

As stated above, the sacraments of the New Law produce a character, in so far as by them we are deputed to the worship of God according to the rite of the Christian religion...

Q2463: Whether the sacramental character is the character of Christ?

As has been made clear above, a character is properly a kind of seal, whereby something is marked, as being ordained to some particular end: thus a coin is marked for use in exchange of goods, and soldiers are marked with a character as being deputed to military service...

Q2464: Whether the character be subjected in the powers of the soul?

As stated above, a character is a kind of seal by which the soul is marked, so that it may receive, or bestow on others, things pertaining to Divine worship...

Q2465: Whether a character can be blotted out from the soul?

As stated above, in a sacramental character Christ's faithful have a share in His Priesthood; in the sense that as Christ has the full power of a spiritual priesthood, so His faithful are likened to Him by sharing a certain spiritual power with regard to the sacraments and to things pertaining to the Divine worship...

Q2466: Whether a character is imprinted by each sacrament of the New Law?

As stated above, the sacraments of the New Law are ordained for a twofold purpose, namely, as a remedy for sin, and for the Divine worship...

OF THE CAUSES OF THE SACRAMENTS

Q2467: Whether God alone, or the minister also, works inwardly unto the sacramental effect?

There are two ways of producing an effect; first, as a principal agent; secondly, as an instrument...

Q2468: Whether the sacraments are instituted by God alone?

As appears from what has been said above, the sacraments are instrumental causes of spiritual effects...

Q2469: Whether Christ as man had the power of producing the inward sacramental effect?

Christ produces the inward sacramental effect, both as God and as man, but not in the same way...

Q2470: Whether Christ could communicate to ministers the power which He had in the sacraments?

As stated above, Christ had a twofold power in the sacraments. one was the power of "authority," which belongs to Him as God: and this power He could not communicate to any creature; just as neither could He communicate the Divine Essence...

Q2471: Whether the sacraments can be conferred by evil ministers?

As stated above, the ministers of the Church work instrumentally in the sacraments, because, in a way, a minister is of the nature of an instrument...

Q2472: Whether wicked men sin in administering the sacraments?

A sinful action consists in this, that a man "fails to act as he ought to," as the Philosopher explains ...

Q2473: Whether angels can administer sacraments?

As stated above, the whole power of the sacraments flows from Christ's Passion, which belongs to Him as man...

Q2474: Whether the minister's intention is required for the validity of a sacrament?

When a thing is indifferent to many uses, it must needs be determined to one, if that one has to be effected...

Q2475: Whether faith is required of necessity in the minister of a sacrament?

As stated above, since the minister works instrumentally in the sacraments, he acts not by his own but by Christ's power...

Q2476: Whether the validity of a sacrament requires a good intention in the minister?

The minister's intention may be perverted in two ways...

OF THE NUMBER OF THE SACRAMENTS

Q2477: Whether there should be seven sacraments?

As stated above, the sacraments of the Church were instituted for a twofold purpose: namely, in order to perfect man in things pertaining to the worship of God according to the religion of Christian life, and to be a remedy against the defects caused by sin...

Q2478: Whether the order of the sacraments, as given above, is becoming?

The reason of the order among the sacraments appears from what has been said above ...

Q2479: Whether the Eucharist is the greatest of the sacraments?

Absolutely speaking, the sacrament of the Eucharist is the greatest of all the sacraments: and this may be shown in three ways...

Q2480: Whether all the sacraments are necessary for salvation?

Necessity of end, of which we speak now, is twofold...

OF THE SACRAMENT OF BAPTISM

Q2481: Whether Baptism is the mere washing?

In the sacrament of Baptism, three things may be considered: namely, that which is "sacrament only"; that which is "reality and sacrament"; and that which is "reality only"...

Q2482: Whether Baptism was instituted after Christ's Passion?

As stated above, sacraments derive from their institution the power of conferring grace...

Q2483: Whether water is the proper matter of Baptism?

By Divine institution water is the proper matter of Baptism; and with reason...

Q2484: Whether plain water is necessary for Baptism?

Water may cease to be pure or plain water in two ways: first, by being mixed with another body; secondly, by alteration...

Q2485: Whether this be a suitable form of Baptism: "I baptize thee in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost"?

Baptism receives its consecration from its form, according to Eph. 5:26: "Cleansing it by the laver of water in the word of life"...

Q2486: Whether Baptism can be conferred in the name of Christ?

As stated above, the sacraments derive their efficacy from Christ's institution...

Q2487: Whether immersion in water is necessary for Baptism?

In the sacrament of Baptism water is put to the use of a washing of the body, whereby to signify the inward washing away of sins...

Q2488: Whether trine immersion is essential to Baptism?

As stated above, washing with water is of itself required for Baptism, being essential to the sacrament: whereas the mode of washing is accidental to the sacrament...

Q2489: Whether Baptism may be reiterated?

Baptism cannot be reiterated.

Q2490: Whether the Church observes a suitable rite in baptizing?

In the sacrament of Baptism something is done which is essential to the sacrament, and something which belongs to a certain solemnity of the sacrament...

Q2491: Whether three kinds of Baptism are fittingly described---viz. Baptism of Water, of Blood, and of the Spirit?

As stated above, Baptism of Water has its efficacy from Christ's Passion, to which a man is conformed by Baptism, and also from the Holy Ghost, as first cause...

Q2492: Whether the Baptism of Blood is the most excellent of these?

As stated above, the shedding of blood for Christ's sake, and the inward operation of the Holy Ghost, are called baptisms, in so far as they produce the effect of the Baptism of Water...

OF THE MINISTERS BY WHOM THE SACRAMENT OF BAPTISM IS CONFERRED

Q2493: Whether it is part of a deacon's duty to baptize?

Just as the properties and duties of the heavenly orders are gathered from their names, as Dionysius says, so can we gather, from the names of the ecclesiastical orders, what belongs to each order...

Q2494: Whether to baptize is part of the priestly office, or proper to that of bishops?

Priests are consecrated for the purpose of celebrating the sacrament of Christ's Body, as stated above ...

Q2495: Whether a layman can baptize?

It is due to the mercy of Him "Who will have all men to be saved" that in those things which are necessary for salvation, man can easily find the remedy...

Q2496: Whether a woman can baptize?

Christ is the chief Baptizer, according to Jn. 1:33: "He upon Whom thou shalt see the Spirit descending and remaining upon Him, He it is that baptizeth"...

Q2497: Whether one that is not baptized can confer the sacrament of Baptism?

Augustine left this question without deciding it...

Q2498: Whether several can baptize at the same time?

The Sacrament of Baptism derives its power principally from its form, which the Apostle calls "the word of life" ...

Q2499: Whether in Baptism it is necessary for someone to raise the baptized from the sacred font?

The spiritual regeneration, which takes place in Baptism, is in a certain manner likened to carnal generation: wherefore it is written : "As new-born babes, endowed with reason desire milk without guile"...

Q2500: Whether he who raises anyone from the sacred font is bound to instruct him?

Every man is bound to fulfil those duties which he has undertaken to perform...

OF THOSE WHO RECEIVE BAPTISM

Q2501: Whether all are bound to receive Baptism?

Men are bound to that without which they cannot obtain salvation...

Q2502: Whether a man can be saved without Baptism?

The sacrament or Baptism may be wanting to someone in two ways...

Q2503: Whether Baptism should be deferred?

In this matter we must make a distinction and see whether those who are to be baptized are children or adults...

Q2504: Whether sinners should be baptized?

A man may be said to be a sinner in two ways...

Q2505: Whether works of satisfaction should be enjoined on sinners that have been baptized?

As the Apostle says, "all we who are baptized in Christ Jesus, are baptized in His death: for we are buried together with Him, by Baptism unto death"; which is to say that by Baptism man is incorporated in the very death of Christ...

Q2506: Whether sinners who are going to be baptized are bound to confess their sins?

Confession of sins is twofold...

Q2507: Whether the intention of receiving the sacrament of Baptism is required on the part of the one baptized?

By Baptism a man dies to the old life of sin, and begins a certain newness of life, according to Rom. 6:4: "We are buried together with" Christ "by Baptism into death; that, as Christ is risen from the dead . . . so we also may walk in newness of life"...

Q2508: Whether faith is required on the part of the one baptized?

As appears from what has been said above Baptism produces a twofold effect in the soul, viz. the character and grace...

Q2509: Whether children should be baptized?

As the Apostle says, "if by one man's offense death reigned through one," namely Adam, "much more they who receive abundance of grace, and of the gift, and of justice, shall reign in life through one, Jesus Christ"...

Q2510: Whether children of Jews or other unbelievers be baptized against the will of their parents?

The children of unbelievers either have the use of reason or they have not...

Q2511: Whether a child can be baptized while yet in its mother's womb?

It is essential to Baptism that some part of the body of the person baptized be in some way washed with water, since Baptism is a kind of washing, as stated above ...

Q2512: Whether madmen and imbeciles should be baptized?

In the matter of madmen and imbeciles a distinction is to be made...

OF THE EFFECTS OF BAPTISM

Q2513: Whether all sins are taken away by Baptism?

As the Apostle says, "all we, who are baptized in Christ Jesus, are baptized in His death"...

Q2514: Whether man is freed by Baptism from all debt of punishment due to sin?

As stated above by Baptism a man is incorporated in the Passion and death of Christ, according to Rom. 6:8: "If we be dead with Christ, we believe that we shall live also together with Christ"...

Q2515: Whether Baptism should take away the penalties of sin that belong to this life?

Baptism has the power to take away the penalties of the present life yet it does not take them away during the present life, but by its power they will be taken away from the just in the resurrection when "this mortal hath put on immortality" ...

Q2516: Whether grace and virtues are bestowed on man by Baptism?

As Augustine says in the book on Infant Baptism "the effect of Baptism is that the baptized are incorporated in Christ as His members"...

Q2517: Whether certain acts of the virtues are fittingly set down as effects of Baptism, to wit---incorporation in Christ, enlightenment, and fruitfulness?

By Baptism man is born again unto the spiritual life, which is proper to the faithful of Christ, as the Apostle says : "And that I live now in the flesh; I live in the faith of the Son of God"...

Q2518: Whether children receive grace and virtue in Baptism?

Some of the early writers held that children do not receive grace and virtues in Baptism, but that they receive the imprint of the character of Christ, by the power of which they receive grace and virtue when they arrive at the perfect age...

Q2519: Whether the effect of Baptism is to open the gates of the heavenly kingdom?

To open the gates of the heavenly kingdom is to remove the obstacle that prevents one from entering therein...

Q2520: Whether Baptism has an equal effect in all?

The effect of Baptism is twofold, the essential effect, and the accidental...

Q2521: Whether insincerity hinders the effect of Baptism?

As Damascene says, "God does not compel man to be righteous"...

Q2522: Whether Baptism produces its effect when the insincerity ceases?

As stated above, Baptism is a spiritual regeneration...

OF CIRCUMCISION

Q2523: Whether circumcision was a preparation for, and a figure of Baptism?

Baptism is called the Sacrament of Faith; in so far, to wit, as in Baptism man makes a profession of faith, and by Baptism is aggregated to the congregation of the faithful...

Q2524: Whether circumcision was instituted in a fitting manner?

As stated above circumcision was a preparation for Baptism, inasmuch as it was a profession of faith in Christ, which we also profess in Baptism...

Q2525: Whether the rite of circumcision was fitting?

As stated above, circumcision was established, as a sign of faith, by God "of" Whose "wisdom there is no number" ...

Q2526: Whether circumcision bestowed sanctifying grace?

All are agreed in saying that original sin was remitted in circumcision...

OF THE PREPARATIONS THAT ACCOMPANY BAPTISM

Q2527: Whether catechism should precede Baptism?

As stated above, Baptism is the Sacrament of Faith: since it is a profession of the Christian faith...

Q2528: Whether exorcism should precede Baptism?

Whoever purposes to do a work wisely, first removes the obstacles to his work; hence it is written : "Break up anew your fallow ground and sow not upon thorns"...

Q2529: Whether what is done in the exorcism effects anything, or is a mere sign?

Some say that the things done in the exorcism have no effect, but are mere signs...

Q2530: Whether it belongs to a priest to catechize and exorcize the person to be baptized?

The minister compared to the priest, is as a secondary and instrumental agent to the principal agent: as is implied in the very word "minister"...

CONFIRMATION

Q2531: Whether confirmation is a sacrament?

The sacraments of the New Law are ordained unto special effects of grace: and therefore where there is a special effect of grace, there we find a special sacrament ordained for the purpose...

Q2532: Whether chrism is a fitting matter for this sacrament?

Chrism is the fitting matter of this sacrament...

Q2533: Whether it is essential to this sacrament that the chrism which is its matter be previously consecrated by a bishop?

The entire sanctification of the sacraments is derived from Christ, as stated above ...

Q2534: Whether the proper form of this sacrament is: "I sign thee with the sign of the cross," etc.?

The above form is appropriate to this sacrament...

Q2535: Whether the sacrament of Confirmation imprints a character?

As stated above, a character is a spiritual power ordained to certain sacred actions...

Q2536: Whether the character of Confirmation presupposes of necessity, the baptismal character?

The character of Confirmation, of necessity supposes the baptismal character: so that, in effect, if one who is not baptized were to be confirmed, he would receive nothing, but would have to be confirmed again after receiving Baptism...

Q2537: Whether sanctifying grace is bestowed in this sacrament?

In this sacrament, as stated above, the Holy Ghost is given to the baptized for strength: just as He was given to the apostles on the day of Pentecost, as we read in Acts 2; and just as He was given to the baptized by the imposition of the apostles' hands, as related in Acts 8:17...

Q2538: Whether this sacrament should be given to all?

As stated above, man is spiritually advanced by this sacrament to perfect age...

Q2539: Whether this sacrament should be given to man on the forehead?

As stated above, in this sacrament man receives the Holy Ghost for strength in the spiritual combat, that he may bravely confess the Faith of Christ even in face of the enemies of that Faith...

Q2540: Whether he who is confirmed needs one to stand* for him?

As stated above, this sacrament is given to man for strength in the spiritual combat...

Q2541: Whether only a bishop can confer this sacrament?

In every work the final completion is reserved to the supreme act or power; thus the preparation of the matter belongs to the lower craftsmen, the higher gives the form, but the highest of all is he to whom pertains the use, which is the end of things made by art; thus also the letter which is written by the clerk, is signed by his employer...

Q2542: Whether the rite of this sacrament is appropriate?

Our Lord promised His faithful saying: "Where there are two or three gathered together in My name, there am I in the midst of them"...

OF THE SACRAMENT OF THE EUCHARIST

Q2543: Whether the Eucharist is a sacrament?

The Church's sacraments are ordained for helping man in the spiritual life...

Q2544: Whether the Eucharist is one sacrament or several?

As stated in Metaph. v, a thing is said to be one, not only from being indivisible, or continuous, but also when it is complete; thus we speak of one house, and one man...

Q2545: Whether the Eucharist is necessary for salvation?

Two things have to be considered in this sacrament, namely, the sacrament itself, and what is contained in it...

Q2546: Whether this sacrament is suitably called by various names?

This sacrament has a threefold significance. one with regard to the past, inasmuch as it is commemorative of our Lord's Passion, which was a true sacrifice, as stated above, and in this respect it is called a "Sacrifice"...

Q2547: Whether the institution of this sacrament was appropriate?

This sacrament was appropriately instituted at the supper, when Christ conversed with His disciples for the last time...

Q2548: Whether the Paschal Lamb was the chief figure of this sacrament?

We can consider three things in this sacrament: namely, that which is sacrament only, and this is the bread and wine; that which is both reality and sacrament, to wit, Christ's true body; and lastly that which is reality only, namely, the effect of this sacrament...

OF THE MATTER OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2549: Whether the matter of this sacrament is bread and wine?

Some have fallen into various errors about the matter of this sacrament...

Q2550: Whether a determinate quantity of bread and wine is required for the matter of this sacrament?

Some have maintained that the priest could not consecrate an immense quantity of bread and wine, for instance, all the bread in the market or all the wine in a cask...

Q2551: Whether wheaten bread is required for the matter of this sacrament?

As stated above, for the use of the sacraments such matter is adopted as is commonly made use of among men...

Q2552: Whether this sacrament ought to be made of unleavened bread?

Two things may be considered touching the matter of this sacrament namely, what is necessary, and what is suitable...

Q2553: Whether wine of the grape is the proper matter of this sacrament?

This sacrament can only be performed with wine from the grape...

Q2554: Whether water should be mixed with the wine?

Water ought to be mingled with the wine which is offered in this sacrament...

Q2555: Whether the mixing with water is essential to this sacrament?

Judgment concerning a sign is to be drawn from the thing signified...

Q2556: Whether water should be added in great quantity?

There is a threefold opinion regarding the water added to the wine, as Pope Innocent III says in a certain Decretal...

OF THE CHANGE OF BREAD AND WINE INTO THE BODY AND BLOOD OF CHRIST

Q2557: Whether the body of Christ be in this sacrament in very truth, or merely as in a figure or sign?

The presence of Christ's true body and blood in this sacrament cannot be detected by sense, nor understanding, but by faith alone, which rests upon Divine authority...

Q2558: Whether in this sacrament the substance of the bread and wine remains after the consecration?

Some have held that the substance of the bread and wine remains in this sacrament after the consecration...

Q2559: Whether the substance of the bread or wine is annihilated after the consecration of this sacrament, or dissolved into their original matter?

Because the substance of the bread and wine does not remain in this sacrament, some, deeming that it is impossible for the substance of the bread and wine to be changed into Christ's flesh and blood, have maintained that by the consecration, the substance of the bread and wine is either dissolved into the original matter, or that it is annihilated.

Q2560: Whether bread can be converted into the body of Christ?

As stated above, since Christ's true body is in this sacrament, and since it does not begin to be there by local motion, nor is it contained therein as in a place, as is evident from what was stated above, it must be said then that it begins to be there by conversion of the substance of bread into itself.

Q2561: Whether the accidents of the bread and wine remain in this sacrament after the change?

It is evident to sense that all the accidents of the bread and wine remain after the consecration...

Q2562: Whether the substantial form of the bread remains in this sacrament after the consecration?

Some have contended that after the consecration not only do the accidents of the bread remain, but also its substantial form...

Q2563: Whether this change is wrought instantaneously?

A change may be instantaneous from a threefold reason...

Q2564: Whether this proposition is false: "The body of Christ is made out of bread"?

This conversion of bread into the body of Christ has something in common with creation, and with natural transmutation, and in some respect differs from both...

OF THE WAY IN WHICH CHRIST IS IN THIS SACRAMENT

Q2565: Whether the whole Christ is contained under this sacrament?

It is absolutely necessary to confess according to Catholic faith that the entire Christ is in this sacrament...

Q2566: Whether the whole Christ is contained under each species of this sacrament?

After what we have said above, it must be held most certainly that the whole Christ is under each sacramental species yet not alike in each...

Q2567: Whether Christ is entire under every part of the species of the bread and wine?

As was observed above, because the substance of Christ's body is in this sacrament by the power of the sacrament, while dimensive quantity is there by reason of real concomitance, consequently Christ's body is in this sacrament substantively, that is, in the way in which substance is under dimensions, but not after the manner of dimensions, which means, not in the way in which the dimensive quantity of a body is under the dimensive quantity of place.

Q2568: Whether the whole dimensive quantity of Christ's body is in this sacrament?

As stated above, any part of Christ is in this sacrament in two ways: in one way, by the power of the sacrament; in another, from real concomitance...

Q2569: Whether Christ's body is in this sacrament as in a place?

As stated above, Christ's body is in this sacrament not after the proper manner of dimensive quantity, but rather after the manner of substance...

Q2570: Whether Christ's body is in this sacrament movably?

When any thing is one, as to subject, and manifold in being, there is nothing to hinder it from being moved in one respect, and yet to remain at rest in another just as it is one thing for a body to be white, and another thing, to be large; hence it can be moved as to its whiteness, and yet continue unmoved as to its magnitude...

Q2571: Whether the body of Christ, as it is in this sacrament, can be seen by any eye, at least by a glorified one?

The eye is of two kinds, namely, the bodily eye properly so-called, and the intellectual eye, so-called by similitude...

Q2572: Whether Christ's body is truly there when flesh or a child appears miraculously in this sacrament?

Such apparition comes about in two ways, when occasionally in this sacrament flesh, or blood, or a child, is seen...

OF THE ACCIDENTS WHICH REMAIN IN THIS SACRAMENT

Q2573: Whether the accidents remain in this sacrament without a subject?

The species of the bread and wine, which are perceived by our senses to remain in this sacrament after consecration, are not subjected in the substance of the bread and wine, for that does not remain, as stated above ; nor in the substantial form, for that does not remain, and if it did remain, "it could not be a subject," as Boethius declares ...

Q2574: Whether in this sacrament the dimensive quantity of the bread or wine is the subject of the other accidents?

It is necessary to say that the other accidents which remain in this sacrament are subjected in the dimensive quantity of the bread and wine that remains: first of all, because something having quantity and color and affected by other accidents is perceived by the senses; nor is sense deceived in such...

Q2575: Whether the species remaining in this sacrament can change external objects?

Because everything acts in so far as it is an actual being, the consequence is that everything stands in the same relation to action as it does to being...

Q2576: Whether the sacramental species can be corrupted?

Corruption is "movement from being into non-being" ...

Q2577: Whether anything can be generated from the sacramental species?

Since "the corruption of one thing is the generation of another", something must be generated necessarily from the sacramental species if they be corrupted, as stated above ; for they are not corrupted in such a way that they disappear altogether, as if reduced to nothing; on the contrary, something sensible manifestly succeeds to them.

Q2578: Whether the sacramental species can nourish?

This question presents no difficulty, now that we have solved the preceding question...

Q2579: Whether the sacramental species are broken in this sacrament?

Many opinions prevailed of old on this matter...

Q2580: Whether any liquid can be mingled with the consecrated wine?

The truth of this question is evident from what has been said already...

OF THE FORM OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2581: Whether this is the form of this sacrament: "This is My body," and "This is the chalice of My blood"?

This sacrament differs from the other sacraments in two respects...

Q2582: Whether this is the proper form for the consecration of the bread: "This is My body"?

This is the proper form for the consecration of the bread...

Q2583: Whether this is the proper form for the consecration of the wine: "This is the chalice of My blood," etc.?

There is a twofold opinion regarding this form...

Q2584: Whether in the aforesaid words of the forms there be any created power which causes the consecration?

Some have maintained that neither in the above words is there any created power for causing the transubstantiation, nor in the other forms of the sacraments, or even in the sacraments themselves, for producing the sacramental effects...

Q2585: Whether the aforesaid expressions are true?

There have been many opinions on this point...

Q2586: Whether the form of the consecration of the bread accomplishes its effect before the form of the consecration of the wine be completed?

Some of the earlier doctors said that these two forms, namely, for consecrating the bread and the wine, await each other's action, so that the first does not produce its effect until the second be uttered.

OF THE EFFECTS OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2587: Whether grace is bestowed through this sacrament?

The effect of this sacrament ought to be considered, first of all and principally, from what is contained in this sacrament, which is Christ; Who, just as by coming into the world, He visibly bestowed the life of grace upon the world, according to Jn. 1:17: "Grace and truth came by Jesus Christ," so also, by coming sacramentally into man causes the life of grace, according to Jn. 6:58: "He that eateth Me, the same also shall live by Me"...

Q2588: Whether the attaining of glory is an effect of this sacrament?

In this sacrament we may consider both that from which it derives its effect, namely, Christ contained in it, as also His Passion represented by it; and that through which it works its effect, namely, the use of the sacrament, and its species.

Q2589: Whether the forgiveness of mortal sin is an effect of this sacrament?

The power of this sacrament can be considered in two ways...

Q2590: Whether venial sins are forgiven through this sacrament?

Two things may be considered in this sacrament, to wit, the sacrament itself, and the reality of the sacrament: and it appears from both that this sacrament has the power of forgiving venial sins...

Q2591: Whether the entire punishment due to sin is forgiven through this sacrament?

This sacrament is both a sacrifice and a sacrament. it has the nature of a sacrifice inasmuch as it is offered up; and it has the nature of a sacrament inasmuch as it is received...

Q2592: Whether man is preserved by this sacrament from future sins?

Sin is the spiritual death of the soul...

Q2593: Whether this sacrament benefit others besides the recipients?

As stated above, this sacrament is not only a sacrament, but also a sacrifice...

Q2594: Whether the effect of this sacrament is hindered by venial sin?

Venial sins can be taken in two ways: first of all as past, secondly as in the act of being committed...

OF THE USE OR RECEIVING OF THIS SACRAMENT IN GENERAL

Q2595: Whether there are two ways to be distinguished of eating Christ's body?

There are two things to be considered in the receiving of this sacrament, namely, the sacrament itself, and its fruits, and we have already spoken of both ...

Q2596: Whether it belongs to man alone to eat this sacrament spiritually?

Christ Himself is contained in this sacrament, not under His proper species, but under the sacramental species...

Q2597: Whether the just man alone may eat Christ sacramentally?

In the past, some have erred upon this point, saying that Christ's body is not received sacramentally by sinners; but that directly the body is touched by the lips of sinners, it ceases to be under the sacramental species.

Q2598: Whether the sinner sins in receiving Christ's body sacramentally?

In this sacrament, as in the others, that which is a sacrament is a sign of the reality of the sacrament...

Q2599: Whether to approach this sacrament with consciousness of sin is the gravest of all sins?

As stated earlier, one sin can be said to be graver than another in two ways: first of all essentially, secondly accidentally...

Q2600: Whether the priest ought to deny the body of Christ to the sinner seeking it?

A distinction must be made among sinners: some are secret; others are notorious, either from evidence of the fact, as public usurers, or public robbers, or from being denounced as evil men by some ecclesiastical or civil tribunal...

Q2601: Whether the seminal loss that occurs during sleep hinders anyone from receiving this sacrament?

There are two things to be weighed regarding the aforesaid movements: one on account of which they necessarily prevent a man from receiving this sacrament; the other, on account of which they do so, not of necessity, but from a sense of propriety.

Q2602: Whether food or drink taken beforehand hinders the receiving of this sacrament?

A thing may prevent the receiving of this sacrament in two ways: first of all in itself, like mortal sin, which is repugnant to what is signified by this sacrament, as stated above : secondly, on account of the Church's prohibition; and thus a man is prevented from taking this sacrament after receiving food or drink, for three reasons...

Q2603: Whether those who have not the use of reason ought to receive this sacrament?

Men are said to be devoid of reason in two ways...

Q2604: Whether it is lawful to receive this sacrament daily?

There are two things to be considered regarding the use of this sacrament...

Q2605: Whether it is lawful to abstain altogether from communion?

As stated above, there are two ways of receiving this sacrament namely, spiritually and sacramentally...

Q2606: Whether it is lawful to receive the body of Christ without the blood?

Two points should be observed regarding the use of this sacrament, one on the part of the sacrament, the other on the part of the recipients; on the part of the sacrament it is proper for both the body and the blood to be received, since the perfection of the sacrament lies in both, and consequently, since it is the priest's duty both to consecrate and finish the sacrament, he ought on no account to receive Christ's body without the blood.

OF THE USE WHICH CHRIST MADE OF THIS SACRAMENT AT ITS INSTITUTION

Q2607: Whether Christ received His own body and blood?

Some have said that Christ during the supper gave His body and blood to His disciples, but did not partake of it Himself...

Q2608: Whether Christ gave His body to Judas?

Hilary, in commenting on Mat. 26:17, held that Christ did not give His body and blood to Judas...

Q2609: Whether Christ received and gave to the disciples His impassible body?

Hugh of Saint Victor, maintained, that before the Passion, Christ assumed at various times the four properties of a glorified body ---namely, subtlety in His birth, when He came forth from the closed womb of the Virgin; agility, when He walked dryshod upon the sea; clarity, in the Transfiguration; and impassibility at the Last Supper, when He gave His body to the disciples to be eaten...

Q2610: Whether, if this sacrament had been reserved in a pyx, or consecrated at the moment of Christ's death by one of the apostles, Christ Himself would have died there?

Christ's body is substantially the same in this sacrament, as in its proper species, but not after the same fashion; because in its proper species it comes in contact with surrounding bodies by its own dimensions: but it does not do so as it is in this sacrament, as stated above ...

OF THE MINISTER OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2611: Whether the consecration of this sacrament belongs to a priest alone?

As stated above, such is the dignity of this sacrament that it is performed only as in the person of Christ...

Q2612: Whether several priests can consecrate one and the same host?

As stated above, when a priest is ordained he is placed on a level with those who received consecrating power from our Lord at the Supper...

Q2613: Whether dispensing of this sacrament belongs to a priest alone?

The dispensing of Christ's body belongs to the priest for three reasons...

Q2614: Whether the priest who consecrates is bound to receive this sacrament?

As stated above, the Eucharist is not only a sacrament, but also a sacrifice...

Q2615: Whether a wicked priest can consecrate the Eucharist?

As was said above, the priest consecrates this sacrament not by his own power, but as the minister of Christ, in Whose person he consecrates this sacrament...

Q2616: Whether the mass of a sinful priest is of less worth than the mass of a good priest?

There are two things to be considered in the mass...

Q2617: Whether heretics, schismatics, and excommunicated persons can consecrate?

Some have contended that heretics, schismatics, and the excommunicate, who are outside the pale of the Church, cannot perform this sacrament...

Q2618: Whether a degraded priest can consecrate this sacrament?

The power of consecrating the Eucharist belongs to the character of the priestly order...

Q2619: Whether it is permissible to receive communion from heretical, excommunicate, or sinful priests, and to hear mass said by them?

As was said above, heretical, schismatical, excommunicate, or even sinful priests, although they have the power to consecrate the Eucharist, yet they do not make a proper use of it; on the contrary, they sin by using it...

Q2620: Whether it is lawful for a priest to refrain entirely from consecrating the Eucharist?

Some have said that a priest may lawfully refrain altogether from consecrating, except he be bound to do so, and to give the sacraments to the people, by reason of his being entrusted with the care of souls.

OF THE RITE OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2621: Whether Christ is sacrificed in this sacrament?

The celebration of this sacrament is called a sacrifice for two reasons...

Q2622: Whether the time for celebrating this mystery has been properly determined?

As stated above, in the celebration of this mystery, we must take into consideration the representation of our Lord's Passion, and the participation of its fruits; and the time suitable for the celebration of this mystery ought to be determined by each of these considerations...

Q2623: Whether this sacrament ought to be celebrated in a house and with sacred vessels?

There are two things to be considered regarding the equipment of this sacrament: one of these belongs to the representation of the events connected with our Lord's Passion; while the other is connected with the reverence due to the sacrament, in which Christ is contained verily, and not in figure only.

Q2624: Whether the words spoken in this sacrament are properly framed?

Since the whole mystery of our salvation is comprised in this sacrament, therefore is it performed with greater solemnity than the other sacraments...

Q2625: Whether the actions performed in celebrating this sacrament are becoming?

As was said above, there is a twofold manner of signification in the sacraments, by words, and by actions, in order that the signification may thus be more perfect...

Q2626: Whether the defects occurring during the celebration of this sacrament can be sufficiently met by observing the Church's statutes?

Dangers or defects happening to this sacrament can be met in two ways: first, by preventing any such mishaps from occurring: secondly, by dealing with them in such a way, that what may have happened amiss is put right, either by employing a remedy, or at least by repentance on his part who has acted negligently regarding this sacrament.

OF THE SACRAMENT OF PENANCE

Q2627: Whether Penance is a sacrament?

As Gregory says, "a sacrament consists in a solemn act, whereby something is so done that we understand it to signify the holiness which it confers"...

Q2628: Whether sins are the proper matter of this sacrament?

Matter is twofold, viz. proximate and remote: thus the proximate matter of a statue is a metal, while the remote matter is water...

Q2629: Whether the form of this sacrament is: "I absolve thee"?

The perfection of a thing is ascribed to its form...

Q2630: Whether the imposition of the priest's hands is necessary for this sacrament?

In the sacraments of the Church the imposition of hands is made, to signify some abundant effect of grace, through those on whom the hands are laid being, as it were, united to the ministers in whom grace should be plentiful...

Q2631: Whether this sacrament is necessary for salvation?

A thing is necessary for salvation in two ways: first, absolutely; secondly, on a supposition...

Q2632: Whether Penance is a second plank after shipwreck?

That which is of itself precedes naturally that which is accidental, as substance precedes accident...

Q2633: Whether this sacrament was suitably instituted in the New Law?

As stated above, in this sacrament the acts of the penitent are as matter, while the part taken by the priest, who works as Christ's minister, is the formal and completive element of the sacrament...

Q2634: Whether Penance should last till the end of life?

Penance is twofold, internal and external...

Q2635: Whether Penance can be continuous?

One is said to repent in two ways, actually and habitually...

Q2636: Whether the sacrament of Penance may be repeated?

As regards Penance, some have erred, saying that a man cannot obtain pardon of his sins through Penance a second time...

OF PENANCE AS A VIRTUE

Q2637: Whether Penance is a virtue?

As stated above, to repent is to deplore something one has done...

Q2638: Whether Penance is a special virtue?

As stated earlier, habits are specifically distinguished according to the species of their acts, so that whenever an act has a special reason for being praiseworthy, there must needs be a special habit...

Q2639: Whether the virtue of penance is a species of justice?

As stated above penance is a special virtue not merely because it sorrows for evil done, but also because the penitent grieves for the sin he has committed, inasmuch as it is an offense against God, and purposes to amend...

Q2640: Whether the will is properly the subject of penance?

We can speak of penance in two ways: first, in so far as it is a passion, and thus, since it is a kind of sorrow, it is in the concupiscible part as its subject; secondly, in so far as it is a virtue, and thus, as stated above, it is a species of justice...

Q2641: Whether penance originates from fear?

We may speak of penance in two ways: first, as to the habit, and then it is infused by God immediately without our operating as principal agents, but not without our co-operating dispositively by certain acts...

Q2642: Whether penance is the first of the virtues?

In speaking of the virtues, we do not consider the order of time with regard to the habits, because, since the virtues are connected with one another, as stated earlier, they all begin at the same time to be in the soul; but one is said to precede the other in the order of nature, which order depends on the order of their acts, in so far as the act of one virtue presupposes the act of another...

OF THE EFFECT OF PENANCE, AS REGARDS THE PARDON OF MORTAL SIN

Q2643: Whether all sins are taken away by Penance?

The fact that a sin cannot be taken away by Penance may happen in two ways: first, because of the impossibility of repenting of sin; secondly, because of Penance being unable to blot out a sin...

Q2644: Whether sin can be pardoned without Penance?

It is impossible for a mortal actual sin to be pardoned without penance, if we speak of penance as a virtue...

Q2645: Whether by Penance one sin can be pardoned without another?

It is impossible for Penance to take one sin away without another...

Q2646: Whether the debt of punishment remains after the guilt has been forgiven through Penance?

As stated earlier, in mortal sin there are two things, namely, a turning from the immutable Good, and an inordinate turning to mutable good...

Q2647: Whether the remnants of sin are removed when a mortal sin is forgiven?

Mortal sin, in so far as it turns inordinately to a mutable good, produces in the soul a certain disposition, or even a habit, if the acts be repeated frequently...

Q2648: Whether the forgiveness of guilt is an effect of Penance?

Penance is a virtue in so far as it is a principle of certain human acts...

OF THE REMISSION OF VENIAL SIN

Q2649: Whether venial sin can be forgiven without Penance?

Forgiveness of sin, as stated above, is effected by man being united to God from Whom sin separates him in some way...

Q2650: Whether infusion of grace is necessary for the remission of venial sins?

Each thing is removed by its contrary...

Q2651: Whether venial sins are removed by the sprinkling of holy water and the like?

As stated above, no infusion of fresh grace is required for the forgiveness of a venial sin, but it is enough to have an act proceeding from grace, in detestation of that venial sin, either explicit or at least implicit, as when one is moved fervently to God...

Q2652: Whether venial sin can be taken away without mortal sin?

As stated above, there is no remission of any sin whatever except by the power of grace, because, as the Apostle declares, it is owing to God's grace that He does not impute sin to a man, which a gloss on that passage expounds as referring to venial sin...

OF THE RETURN OF SINS WHICH HAVE BEEN TAKEN AWAY BY PENANCE

Q2653: Whether sins once forgiven return through a subsequent sin?

As stated above, mortal sin contains two things, aversion from God and adherence to a created good...

Q2654: Whether sins that have been forgiven, return through ingratitude which is shown especially in four kinds of sin?

As stated above, sins pardoned through Penance are said to return, in so far as their debt of punishment, by reason of ingratitude, is virtually contained in the subsequent sin...

Q2655: Whether the debt of punishment that arises through ingratitude in respect of a subsequent sin is as great as that of the sins previously pardoned?

Some have maintained that the debt of punishment incurred through ingratitude in respect of a subsequent sin is equal to that of the sins previously pardoned, in addition to the debt proper to this subsequent sin...

Q2656: Whether the ingratitude whereby a subsequent sin causes the return of previous sins, is a special sin?

The ingratitude of the sinner is sometimes a special sin; and sometimes it is not, but a circumstance arising from all mortal sins in common committed against God...

OF THE RECOVERY OF VIRTUE BY MEANS OF PENANCE

Q2657: Whether the virtues are restored through Penance?

Sins are pardoned through Penance, as stated above ...

Q2658: Whether, after Penance, man rises again to equal virtue?

As stated above, the movement of the free-will, in the justification of the ungodly, is the ultimate disposition to grace; so that in the same instant there is infusion of grace together with the aforesaid movement of the free-will, as stated earlier, which movement includes an act of penance, as stated above ...

Q2659: Whether, by Penance, man is restored to his former dignity?

By sin, man loses a twofold dignity, one in respect of God, the other in respect of the Church...

Q2660: Whether virtuous deeds done in charity can be deadened?

A living thing, by dying, ceases to have vital operations: for which reason, by a kind of metaphor, a thing is said to be deadened when it is hindered from producing its proper effect or operation.

Q2661: Whether deeds deadened by sin, are revived by Penance?

Some have said that meritorious works deadened by subsequent sin are not revived by the ensuing Penance, because they deemed such works to have passed away, so that they could not be revived...

Q2662: Whether the effect of subsequent Penance is to quicken even dead works?

A work is said to be dead in two ways: first, effectively, because, to wit, it is a cause of death, in which sense sinful works are said to be dead, according to Heb. 9:14: "The blood of Christ . . . shall cleanse our conscience from dead works"...

OF THE PARTS OF PENANCE, IN GENERAL

Q2663: Whether Penance should be assigned any parts?

The parts of a thing are those into which the whole is divided materially, for the parts of a thing are to the whole, what matter is to the form; wherefore the parts are reckoned as a kind of material cause, and the whole as a kind of formal cause ...

Q2664: Whether contrition, confession, and satisfaction are fittingly assigned as parts of Penance?

A part is twofold, essential and quantitative...

Q2665: Whether these three are integral parts of Penance?

Some have said that these three are subjective parts of Penance...

Q2666: Whether Penance is fittingly divided into penance before Baptism, penance for mortal sins, and penance for venial sins?

This is a division of penance as a virtue...

OF THE PARTS OF PENANCE, IN PARTICULAR, AND FIRST OF CONTRITION

Q2668: Whether contrition is an assumed sorrow for sins, together with the purpose of confessing them and of making satisfaction for them?

As stated in Ecclus. 10:15, "pride is the beginning of all sin," because thereby man clings to his own judgment, and strays from the Divine commandments...

Q2669: Whether contrition is an act of virtue?

Contrition as to the literal signification of the word, does not denote an act of virtue, but a corporeal passion...

Q2670: Whether attrition can become contrition?

There are two opinions on this question: for some say that attrition may become contrition, even as lifeless faith becomes living faith...

OF THE OBJECT OF CONTRITION

Q2671: Whether man should be contrite on account of the punishment, and not only on account of his sin?

As stated above, contrition implies the crushing of something hard and whole...

Q2672: Whether contrition should be on account of original sin?

Contrition is sorrow, as stated above, respecting and, so to speak, crushing the hardness of the will...

Q2673: Whether we should have contrition for every actual sin?

Every actual sin is caused by our will not yielding to God's law, either by transgressing it, or by omitting it, or by acting beside it: and since a hard thing is one that is disposed not to give way easily, hence it is that a certain hardness of the will is to be found in every actual sin...

Q2674: Whether a man is bound to have contrition for his future sins?

In every series of things moving and moved ordained to one another, we find that the inferior mover has its proper movement, and besides this, it follows, in some respect, the movement of the superior mover: this is seen in the movement of the planets, which, in addition to their proper movements, follow the movement of the first heaven...

Q2675: Whether a man ought to have contrition for another's sin?

The same thing is crushed which hitherto was hard and whole...

Q2676: Whether it is necessary to have contrition for each mortal sin?

Contrition may be considered in two ways, as to its origin, and as to its term...

OF THE DEGREE OF CONTRITION

Q2677: Whether contrition is the greatest possible sorrow in the world?

As stated above, there is a twofold sorrow in contrition: one is in the will, and is the very essence of contrition, being nothing else than displeasure at past sin, and this sorrow, in contrition, surpasses all other sorrows...

Q2678: Whether the sorrow of contrition can be too great?

Contrition, as regards the sorrow in the reason, i.e. the displeasure, whereby the sin is displeasing through being an offense against God, cannot be too great; even as neither can the love of charity be too great, for when this is increased the aforesaid displeasure is increased also...

Q2679: Whether sorrow for one sin should be greater than for another?

We may speak of contrition in two ways: first, in so far as it corresponds to each single sin, and thus, as regards the sorrow in the higher appetite, a man ought to be more sorry for a more grievous sin, because there is more reason for sorrow, viz. the offense against God, in such a sin than in another, since the more inordinate the act is, the more it offends God...

OF THE TIME FOR CONTRITION

Q2680: Whether the whole of this life is the time for contrition?

As stated above, there is a twofold sorrow in contrition: one is in the reason, and is detestation of the sin committed; the other is in the sensitive part, and results from the former: and as regards both, the time for contrition is the whole of the present state of life...

Q2681: Whether it is expedient to grieve for sin continually?

We find this condition in the acts of the virtues, that in them excess and defect are not possible, as is proved in Ethic. ii, 6,7...

Q2682: Whether our souls are contrite for sins even after this life?

Three things are to be observed in contrition: first, its genus, viz. sorrow; secondly, its form, for it is an act of virtue quickened by charity; thirdly, its efficacy, for it is a meritorious and sacramental act, and, to a certain extent, satisfactory...

OF THE EFFECT OF CONTRITION

Q2683: Whether the forgiveness of sin is the effect of contrition?

Contrition can be considered in two ways, either as part of a sacrament, or as an act of virtue, and in either case it is the cause of the forgiveness of sin, but not in the same way...

Q2684: Whether contrition can take away the debt of punishment entirely?

The intensity of contrition may be regarded in two ways...

Q2685: Whether slight contrition suffices to blot out great sins?

As we have often said, contrition includes a twofold sorrow...

OF CONFESSION, AS REGARDS ITS NECESSITY

Q2686: Whether confession is necessary for salvation?

Christ's Passion, without whose power, neither original nor actual sin is remitted, produces its effect in us through the reception of the sacraments which derive their efficacy from it...

Q2687: Whether confession is according to the natural law?

The sacraments are professions of faith, wherefore they ought to be proportionate to faith...

Q2688: Whether all are bound to confession?

We are bound to confession on two counts: first, by the Divine law, from the very fact that confession is a remedy, and in this way not all are bound to confession, but those only who fall into mortal sin after Baptism; secondly, by a precept of positive law, and in this way all are bound by the precept of the Church laid down in the general council under Innocent III, both in order that everyone may acknowledge himself to be a sinner, because "all have sinned and need the grace of God" ; and that the Eucharist may be approached with greater reverence; and lastly, that parish priests may know their flock, lest a wolf may hide therein.

Q2689: Whether it is lawful for a man to confess a sin which he has not committed?

The penitent should, by his confession, make his state known to his confessor...

Q2690: Whether one is bound to confess at once?

As the purpose of confessing is united to contrition, a man is bound to have this purpose when he is bound to have contrition, viz. when he calls his sins to mind, and chiefly when he is in danger of death, or when he is so circumstanced that unless his sin be forgiven, he must fall into another sin: for instance, if a priest be bound to say Mass, and a confessor is at hand, he is bound to confess or, if there be no confessor, he is bound at least to contrition and to have the purpose of confessing.

Q2691: Whether one can be dispensed from confession?

The ministers of the Church are appointed in the Church which is founded by God...

OF THE NATURE OF CONFESSION

Q2692: Whether Augustine fittingly defines confession?

Several things offer themselves to our notice in the act of confession: first, the very substance or genus of the act, which is a kind of manifestation; secondly, the matter manifested, viz. sin; thirdly, the person to whom the manifestation is made, viz. the priest; fourthly, its cause, viz. hope of pardon; fifthly, its effect, viz. release from part of the punishment, and the obligation to pay the other part...

Q2693: Whether confession is an act of virtue?

As stated above, for an act to belong to a virtue it suffices that it be of such a nature as to imply some condition belonging to virtue...

Q2694: Whether confession is an act of the virtue of penance?

It must be observed with regard to virtues, that when a special reason of goodness or difficulty is added over and above the object of a virtue, there is need of a special virtue: thus the expenditure of large sums is the object of magnificence, although the ordinary kind of average expenditure and gifts belongs to liberality, as appears from Ethic. ii, 7; iv, 1...

OF THE MINISTER OF CONFESSION

Q2695: Whether it is necessary to confess to a priest?

The grace which is given in the sacraments, descends from the Head to the members...

Q2696: Whether it is ever lawful to confess to another than a priest?

Just as Baptism is a necessary sacrament, so is Penance...

Q2697: Whether, outside a case of necessity, anyone who is not a priest may hear the confession of venial sins?

By venial sin man is separated neither from God nor from the sacraments of the Church: wherefore he does not need to receive any further grace for the forgiveness of such a sin, nor does he need to be reconciled to the Church...

Q2698: Whether it is necessary for one to confess to one's own priest?

The other sacraments do not consist in an action of the recipient, but only in his receiving something, as is evident with regard to Baptism and so forth. though the action of the recipient is required as removing an obstacle, i.e. insincerity, in order that he may receive the benefit of the sacrament, if he has come to the use of his free-will...

Q2699: Whether it is lawful for anyone to confess to another than his own priest, in virtue of a privilege or a command given by a superior?

A priest may be hindered in two ways from hearing a man's confession: first, through lack of jurisdiction; secondly, through being prevented from exercising his order, as those who are excommunicate, degraded, and so forth...

Q2700: Whether a penitent, at the point of death, can be absolved by any priest?

If we consider the power of the keys, every priest has power over all men equally and over all sins: and it is due to the fact that by the ordination of the Church, he has a limited jurisdiction or none at all, that he cannot absolve all men from all sins...

Q2701: Whether the temporal punishment is imposed according to the degree of the fault?

After the forgiveness of sin, a punishment is required for two reasons, viz. to pay the debt, and to afford a remedy...

OF THE QUALITY OF CONFESSION

Q2702: Whether confession can be lacking in form?

Confession is an act of virtue, and is part of a sacrament...

Q2703: Whether confession should be entire?

In prescribing medicine for the body, the physician should know not only the disease for which he is prescribing, but also the general constitution of the sick person, since one disease is aggravated by the addition of another, and a medicine which would be adapted to one disease, would be harmful to another...

Q2704: Whether one may confess through another, or by writing?

Confession is not only an act of virtue, but also part of a sacrament...

Q2705: Whether the sixteen conditions usually assigned are necessary for confession?

Some of the above conditions are essential to confession, and some are requisite for its well-being...

OF THE EFFECT OF CONFESSION

Q2706: Whether confession delivers one from the death of sin?

Penance, as a sacrament, is perfected chiefly in confession, because by the latter a man submits to the ministers of the Church, who are the dispensers of the sacraments: for contrition has the desire of confession united thereto, and satisfaction is enjoined according to the judgment of the priest who hears the confession...

Q2707: Whether confession delivers from punishment in some way?

Confession together with absolution has the power to deliver from punishment, for two reasons...

Q2708: Whether confession opens paradise?

Guilt and the debt of punishment prevent a man from entering into Paradise: and since confession removes these obstacles, as shown above, it is said to open Paradise.

Q2709: Whether confession gives hope of salvation?

We can have no hope for the forgiveness of our sins except through Christ: and since by confession a man submits to the keys of the Church which derive their power from Christ's Passion, therefore do we say that confession gives hope of salvation.

Q2710: Whether a general confession suffices to blot out forgotten mortal sins?

Confession produces its effect, on the presupposition that there is contrition which blots out guilt: so that confession is directly ordained to the remission of punishment, which it causes in virtue of the shame which it includes, and by the power of the keys to which a man submits by confessing...

OF THE SEAL OF CONFESSION

Q2711: Whether in every case the priest is bound to hide the sins which he knows under the seal of confession?

Those things which are done outwardly in the sacraments are the signs of what takes place inwardly: wherefore confession, whereby a man subjects himself to a priest, is a sign of the inward submission, whereby one submits to God...

Q2712: Whether the seal of confession extends to other matters than those which have reference to confession?

The seal of confession does not extend directly to other matters than those which have reference to sacramental confession, yet indirectly matters also which are not connected with sacramental confession are affected by the seal of confession, those, for instance, which might lead to the discovery of a sinner or of his sin...

Q2713: Whether the priest alone is bound by the seal of confession?

The seal of confession affects the priest as minister of this sacrament: which seal is nothing else than the obligation of keeping the confession secret, even as the key is the power of absolving...

Q2714: Whether by the penitent's permission, a priest may reveal to another a sin which he knows under the seal of confession?

There are two reasons for which the priest is bound to keep a sin secret: first and chiefly, because this very secrecy is essential to the sacrament, in so far as the priest knows that sin, as it is known to God, Whose place he holds in confession: secondly, in order to avoid scandal...

Q2715: Whether a man may reveal that which he knows through confession and through some other source besides?

There are three opinions about this question...

OF SATISFACTION, AS TO ITS NATURE

Q2716: Whether satisfaction is a virtue or an act of virtue?

An act is said to be the act of a virtue in two ways...

Q2717: Whether satisfaction is an act of justice?

According to the Philosopher, the mean of justice is considered with regard to an equation between thing and thing according to a certain proportion...

Q2718: Whether the definition of satisfaction given in the text is suitable?

Justice aims not only at removing inequality already existing, by punishing the past fault, but also at safeguarding equality for the future, because according to the Philosopher "punishments are medicinal"...

OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SATISFACTION

Q2719: Whether man can make satisfaction to God?

Man becomes God's debtor in two ways; first, by reason of favors received, secondly, by reason of sin committed: and just as thanksgiving or worship or the like regard the debt for favors received, so satisfaction regards the debt for sin committed...

Q2720: Whether one man can fulfill satisfactory punishment for another?

Satisfactory punishment has a twofold purpose, viz. to pay the debt, and to serve as a remedy for the avoidance of sin...

OF THE QUALITY OF SATISFACTION

Q2721: Whether a man can satisfy for one sin without satisfying for another?

Some have held that it is possible to make satisfaction for one sin and not for another, as the Master states ...

Q2722: Whether, when deprived of charity, a man can make satisfaction for sins for which he was previously contrite?

Some have said that if, when all a man's sins have been pardoned through contrition, and before he has made satisfaction for them, he falls into sin, and then makes satisfaction, such satisfaction will be valid, so that if he die in that sin, he will not be punished in hell for the other sins.

Q2723: Whether previous satisfaction begins to avail after man is restored to charity?

Some have said that works done while in a state of charity, which are called living works, are meritorious in respect of eternal life, and satisfactory in respect of paying off the debt of punishment; and that by subsequent charity, works done without charity are quickened so as to be satisfactory, but not so as to be meritorious of eternal life...

Q2724: Whether works done without charity merit any, at least temporal, good?

Properly speaking a merit is an action on account of which it is just that the agent should be given something...

Q2725: Whether the aforesaid works avail for the mitigation of the pains of hell?

Mitigation of the pains of hell can be understood in two ways: first, as though one were delivered from the punishment which he already deserved, and thus, since no one is delivered from punishment unless he be absolved from guilt,, the pain of hell cannot be mitigated by works done without charity, since they are unable to remove or diminish guilt...

OF THE MEANS OF MAKING SATISFACTION

Q2726: Whether satisfaction must be made by means of penal works?

As stated above, satisfaction regards both the past offense, for which compensation is made by its means, and also future sin wherefrom we are preserved thereby: and in both respects satisfaction needs to be made by means of penal works...

Q2727: Whether the scourges of the present life are satisfactory?

Compensation for a past offense can be enforced either by the offender or by another...

Q2728: Whether the works of satisfaction are suitably enumerated?

Satisfaction should be of such a nature as to involve something taken away from us for the honor of God...

OF THOSE WHO RECEIVE THE SACRAMENT OF PENANCE

Q2729: Whether penance can be in the innocent?

Habit comes between power and act: and since the removal of what precedes entails the removal of what follows, but not conversely, the removal of the habit ensues from the removal of the power to act, but not from the removal of the act...

Q2730: Whether the saints in glory have penance?

The cardinal virtues will remain in heaven, but only as regards the acts which they exercise in respect of their end...

Q2731: Whether an angel can be the subject of penance?

In us, penance is taken in two senses; first, as a passion, and thus it is nothing but pain or sorrow on account of a sin committed: and though, as a passion it is only in the concupiscible part, yet, by way of comparison, the name of penance is given to that act of the will, whereby a man detests what he has done, even as love and other passions are spoken of as though they were in the intellectual appetite...

OF THE POWER OF THE KEYS

Q2732: Whether there should be keys in the Church?

In material things a key is an instrument for opening a door...

Q2733: Whether the key is the power of binding and loosing, etc.?

According to the Philosopher, "powers are defined from their acts"...

Q2734: Whether there are two keys or only one?

Whenever an act requires fitness on the part of the recipient, two things are necessary in the one who has to perform the act, viz. judgment of the fitness of the recipient, and accomplishment of the act...

OF THE EFFECT OF THE KEYS

Q2735: Whether the power of the keys extends to the remission of guilt?

According to Hugh, "the sacraments, by virtue of their sanctification, contain an invisible grace"...

Q2736: Whether a priest can remit sin as to the punishment?

Whatever may be said of the effect of Baptism conferred on one who has already received grace, applies equally to the effect of the actual exercise of the power of the keys on one who has already been contrite...

Q2737: Whether the priest can bind through the power of the keys?

The operation of the priest in using the keys, is conformed to God's operation, Whose minister he is...

Q2738: Whether the priest can bind and loose according to his own judgment?

In using the keys, the priest acts as the instrument and minister of God...

OF THE MINISTERS OF THE KEYS

Q2739: Whether the priest of the Law had the keys?

Some have held that, under the Old Law, the keys of the kingdom were in the hands of the priests, because the right of imposing punishment for sin was conferred on them, as related in Lev. 5, which right seems to belong to the keys; but that these keys were incomplete then, whereas now they are complete as bestowed by Christ on the priests of the New Law.

Q2740: Whether Christ had the key?

The power to do a thing is both in the instrument and in the principal agent, but not in the same way since it is more perfectly in the latter...

Q2741: Whether priests alone have the keys?

There are two kinds of key. one reaches to heaven itself directly, by remitting sin and thus removing the obstacles to the entrance into heaven; and this is called the key of "order"...

Q2742: Whether holy men who are not priests have the keys?

There is this difference between a principal and an instrumental agent, that the latter does not produce, in the effect, its own likeness, but the likeness of the principal agent, whereas the principal agent produces its own likeness...

Q2743: Whether wicked priests have the use of the keys?

Just as participation of a form to be induced into an effect does not make a thing to be an instrument, so neither does the loss of that form prevent that thing being used as an instrument...

Q2744: Whether those who are schismatics, heretics, excommunicate, suspended or degraded have the use of the keys?

In all the above the power of the keys remains as to its essence, but its use is hindered on account of the lack of matter...

OF THOSE ON WHOM THE POWER OF THE KEYS CAN BE EXERCISED

Q2745: Whether a priest can use the key which he has, on any man?

That which has to do with singular matters is not equally in the power of all...

Q2746: Whether a priest can always absolve his subject?

The power of order, considered in itself, extends to the remission of all sins...

Q2747: Whether a man can use the keys with regard to his superior?

The power of the keys, considered in itself, is applicable to all, as stated above : and that a priest is unable to use the keys on some particular person is due to his power being limited to certain individuals...

OF THE DEFINITION, CONGRUITY AND CAUSE OF EXCOMMUNICATION

Q2748: Whether excommunication is suitably defined as separation from the communion of the Church, etc?

When a man enters the Church by Baptism, he is admitted to two things, viz. the body of the faithful and the participation of the sacraments: and this latter presupposes the former, since the faithful are united together in the participation of the sacraments...

Q2749: Whether the Church should excommunicate anyone?

The judgment of the Church should be conformed to the judgment of God...

Q2750: Whether anyone should be excommunicated for inflicting temporal harm?

By excommunication the ecclesiastical judge excludes a man, in a sense, from the kingdom...

Q2751: Whether an excommunication unjustly pronounced has any effect?

An excommunication may be unjust for two reasons...

OF THOSE WHO CAN EXCOMMUNICATE OR BE EXCOMMUNICATED

Q2752: Whether every priest can excommunicate?

In the tribunal of conscience the plea is between man and God, whereas in the outward tribunal it is between man and man...

Q2753: Whether those who are not priests can excommunicate?

Priests alone are competent to dispense the sacraments wherein grace is given: wherefore they alone can loose and bind in the tribunal of Penance...

Q2754: Whether a man who is excommunicated or suspended can excommunicate another?

Jurisdiction can only be used in relation to another man...

Q2755: Whether a man can excommunicate himself, his equal, or his superior?

Since, by jurisdiction, a man is placed above those over whom he has jurisdiction, through being their judge, it follows that no man has jurisdiction over himself, his superior, or his equal, and that, consequently, no one can excommunicate either himself, or his superior, or his equal.

Q2756: Whether a sentence of excommunication can be passed on a body of men?

No man should be excommunicated except for a mortal sin...

Q2757: Whether a man can be excommunicated who is already under sentence of excommunication?

A man who is under sentence of one excommunication, can be excommunicated again, either by a repetition of the same excommunication, for his greater confusion, so that he may renounce sin, or for some other cause...

OF COMMUNICATION WITH EXCOMMUNICATED PERSONS

Q2758: Whether it is lawful, in matters purely corporal, to communicate with an excommunicated person?

Excommunication is twofold: there is minor excommunication, which deprives a man merely of a share in the sacraments, but not of the communion of the faithful...

Q2759: Whether a person incurs excommunication for communicating with one who is excommunicated?

A person may incur excommunication in two ways...

Q2760: Whether it is always a mortal sin to communicate with an excommunicated person in other cases than those in which it is allowed?

Some hold that it is always a mortal sin to hold communion with an excommunicated person, by word or in any of the forbidden ways mentioned above, except in those cases allowed by law ...

OF ABSOLUTION FROM EXCOMMUNICATION

Q2761: Whether any priest can absolve his subject from excommunication?

Anyone can absolve from minor excommunication who can absolve from the sin of participation in the sin of another...

Q2762: Whether anyone can be absolved against his will?

Evil of fault and evil of punishment differ in this, that the origin of fault is within us, since all sin is voluntary, whereas the origin of punishment is sometimes without, since punishment does not need to be voluntary, in fact the nature of punishment is rather to be against the will...

Q2763: Whether a man can be absolved from one excommunication without being absolved from all?

Excommunications are not connected together in any way, and so it is possible for a man to be absolved from one, and yet remain under another.

OF INDULGENCES

Q2764: Whether an indulgence can remit any part of the punishment due for the satisfaction of sins?

All admit that indulgences have some value, for it would be blasphemy to say that the Church does anything in vain...

Q2765: Whether indulgences are as effective as they claim to be?

On this point there are many opinions...

Q2766: Whether an indulgence ought to be granted for temporal help?

Temporal things are subordinate to spiritual matters, since we must make use of temporal things on account of spiritual things...

OF THOSE WHO CAN GRANT INDULGENCES

Q2767: Whether every parish priest can grant indulgences?

Indulgences are effective, in as much as the works of satisfaction done by one person are applied to another, not only by virtue of charity, but also by the intention of the person who did them being directed in some way to the person to whom they are applied...

Q2768: Whether a deacon or another who is not a priest can grant an indulgence?

The power of granting indulgences follows jurisdiction, as stated above ...

Q2769: Whether a bishop can grant indulgences?

The Pope has the plenitude of pontifical power, being like a king in his kingdom: whereas the bishops are appointed to a share in his solicitude, like judges over each city...

Q2770: Whether indulgences can be granted by one who is in mortal sin?

The granting of indulgences belongs to jurisdiction...

OF THOSE WHOM INDULGENCES AVAIL

Q2771: Whether an indulgence avails those who are in mortal sin?

Some hold that indulgences avail those even who are in mortal sin, for the acquiring of grace, but not for the remission of their punishment, since none can be freed from punishment who is not yet freed from guilt...

Q2772: Whether indulgences avail religious?

Indulgences avail both seculars and religious, provided they have charity and satisfy the conditions for gaining the indulgences: for religious can be helped by indulgences no less than persons living in the world.

Q2773: Whether an indulgence can ever be granted to one who does not fulfill the conditions required?

Failing the condition of a grant, no grant ensues...

Q2774: Whether an indulgence avails the person who grants it?

An indulgence should be given for some reason, in order for anyone to be enticed by the indulgence to perform some action that conduces to the good of the Church and to the honor of God...

OF THE SOLEMN RITE OF PENANCE

Q2775: Whether a penance should be published or solemnized?

Some penances should be public and solemn for four reasons...

Q2776: Whether a solemn penance can be repeated?

Solemn penance ought not to be repeated, for three reasons...

Q2777: Whether solemn penance should be imposed on women and clerics, and whether any priest can impose it?

Every solemn penance is public, but not vice versa...

EXTREME UNCTION

Q2778: Whether Extreme Unction is a sacrament?

Among the visible operations of the Church, some are sacraments, as Baptism, some are sacramentals, as Exorcism...

Q2779: Whether Extreme Unction is one sacrament?

Strictly speaking, a thing is one numerically in three ways...

Q2780: Whether this sacrament was instituted by Christ?

There are two opinions on this point...

Q2781: Whether olive oil is a suitable matter for this sacrament?

The spiritual healing, which is given at the end of life, ought to be complete, since there is no other to follow; it ought also to be gentle, lest hope, of which the dying stand in utmost need, be shattered rather than fostered...

Q2782: Whether the oil ought to be consecrated?

Some hold that mere oil is the matter of this sacrament, and that the sacrament itself is perfected in the consecration of the oil by the bishop...

Q2783: Whether the matter of this sacrament need be consecrated by a bishop?

The minister of a sacrament produces the effect, not by his own power, as though he were the principal agent, but by the efficacy of the sacrament which he dispenses...

Q2784: Whether this sacrament has a form?

Some have held that no form is essential to this sacrament...

Q2785: Whether the form of this sacrament should be expressed by way of assertion or of petition?

The form of this sacrament is expressed by way of a petition, as appears from the words of James, and from the custom of the Roman Church, who uses no other than words of supplication in conferring this sacrament...

Q2786: Whether the foregoing prayer is a suitable form for this sacrament?

The prayer given above is a suitable form for this sacrament, for it includes the sacrament by the words: "By this holy unction," and that which works in the sacrament, viz. "the mercy of God," and the effect, viz. "remission of sins"...

OF THE EFFECT OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2787: Whether Extreme Unction avails for the remission of sins?

Each sacrament was instituted for the purpose of one principal effect, though it may, in consequence, produce other effects besides...

Q2788: Whether bodily health is an effect of this sacrament?

Just as Baptism causes a spiritual cleansing from spiritual stains by means of a bodily washing, so this sacrament causes an inward healing by means of an outward sacramental healing: and even as the baptismal washing has the effect of a bodily washing, since it effects even a bodily cleansing, so too, Extreme Unction has the effect of a bodily remedy, namely a healing of the body...

Q2789: Whether this sacrament imprints a character?

A character is not imprinted except in those sacraments whereby man is deputed to some sacred duty...

OF THE MINISTER OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2790: Whether a layman can confer this sacrament?

According to Dionysius there are some who exercise hierarchical actions, and some who are recipients only...

Q2791: Whether deacons can confer this sacrament?

A deacon has the power to cleanse but not to enlighten...

Q2792: Whether none but a bishop can confer this sacrament?

According to Dionysius, the office of perfecting belongs to a bishop, just as it belongs to a priest to enlighten...

ON WHOM SHOULD THIS SACRAMENT BE CONFERRED AND ON WHAT PART OF THE BODY?

Q2793: Whether this sacrament ought to be conferred on those who are in good health?

This sacrament is a spiritual healing, as stated above, and is signified by way of a healing of the body...

Q2794: Whether this sacrament ought to be given in any kind of sickness?

This sacrament is the last remedy that the Church can give, since it is an immediate preparation for glory...

Q2795: Whether this sacrament ought to be given to madmen and imbeciles?

The devotion of the recipient, the personal merit of the minister, and the general merits of the whole Church, are of great account towards the reception of the effect of this sacrament...

Q2796: Whether this sacrament should be given to children?

This sacrament, like the Eucharist, requires actual devotion in the recipient...

Q2797: Whether the whole body should be anointed in this sacrament?

This sacrament is shown to us under the form of a healing...

Q2798: Whether the parts to be anointed are suitably assigned?

The principles of sinning are the same in us as the principles of action, for a sin is an act...

Q2799: Whether those who are deformed in those parts should be anointed?

Even those who are deformed should be anointed, and that as near as possible to the part which ought to have been anointed...

OF THE REPETITION OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2800: Whether this sacrament ought to be repeated?

No sacramental or sacrament, having an effect that lasts for ever, can be repeated, because this would imply that the sacrament had failed to produce that effect; and this would be derogatory to the sacrament...

Q2801: Whether this sacrament ought to be repeated during the same sickness?

This sacrament regards not only the sickness, but also the state of the sick man, because it ought not to be given except to those sick people who seem, in man's estimation, to be nigh to death...

HOLY ORDERS

Q2802: Whether there should be Order in the Church?

God wished to produce His works in likeness to Himself, as far as possible, in order that they might be perfect, and that He might be known through them...

Q2803: Whether Order is properly defined?

The Master's definition of Order applies to Order as a sacrament of the Church...

Q2804: Whether Order is a sacrament?

As stated above, a sacrament is nothing else than a sanctification conferred on man with some outward sign...

Q2805: Whether the form of this sacrament is suitably expressed?

This sacrament consists chiefly in the power conferred...

Q2806: Whether this sacrament has any matter?

The matter employed outwardly in the sacraments signifies that the power which works in the sacraments comes entirely from without...

OF THE EFFECT OF THIS SACRAMENT

Q2807: Whether sanctifying grace is conferred in the sacrament of Order?

The works of God are perfect ; and consequently whoever receives power from above receives also those things that render him competent to exercise that power...

Q2808: Whether in the sacrament of Order a character is imprinted in connection with all the Orders?

There have been three opinions on this point...

Q2809: Whether the character of Order presupposes the baptismal character?

No one can receive what he has not the power to receive...

Q2810: Whether the character of Order necessarily presupposes the character of Confirmation?

For the reception of Orders something is prerequisite for the validity of the sacrament, and something as congruous to the sacrament...

Q2811: Whether the character of one Order necessarily presupposes the character of another Order?

It is not necessary for the higher Orders that one should have received the minor Orders, because their respective powers are distinct, and one, considered in its essentials, does not require another in the same subject...

OF THE QUALITIES REQUIRED OF THOSE WHO RECEIVE THIS SACRAMENT

Q2812: Whether goodness of life is required of those who receive Orders?

As Dionysius says, "even as the more subtle and clear essences, being filled by the outpouring of the solar radiance, like the sun enlighten other bodies with their brilliant light, so in all things pertaining to God a man must not dare to become a leader of others, unless in all his habits he be most deiform and godlike"...

Q2813: Whether knowledge of all Holy Writ is required?

For any human act to be rightly ordered there must needs be the direction of reason...

Q2814: Whether a man obtains the degrees of Order by the merit of one's life?

A cause should be proportionate to its effect...

Q2815: Whether he who raises the unworthy to Orders commits a sin?

Our Lord describes the faithful servant whom He has set "over His household to give them their measure of wheat"...

Q2816: Whether a man who is in sin can without sin exercise the Order he has received?

The law prescribes that "man should follow justly after that which is just"...

OF THE DISTINCTION OF ORDERS, OF THEIR ACTS, AND THE IMPRINTING OF THE CHARACTER

Q2817: Whether we ought to distinguish several Orders?

Multiplicity of Orders was introduced into the Church for three reasons...

Q2818: Whether there are seven Orders?

Some show the sufficiency of the orders from their correspondence with the gratuitous graces which are indicated 1 Cor. 12...

Q2819: Whether the Order should be divided into those that are sacred and those that are not?

An Order is said to be sacred in two ways...

Q2820: Whether the acts of the Orders are rightly assigned in the text?

Since the consecration conferred in the sacrament of orders is directed to the sacrament of the Eucharist, as stated above, the principal act of each order is that whereby it is most nearly directed to the sacrament of the Eucharist...

Q2821: Whether the character is imprinted on a priest when the chalice is handed to him?

As stated above, to cause the form and to give the matter its proximate preparation for the form belong to the same agent...

OF THOSE WHO CONFER THIS SACRAMENT

Q2822: Whether a bishop alone confers the sacrament of Order?

The episcopal power stands in the same relation to the power of the lower Orders, as political science, which seeks the common good, to the lower acts and virtues which seek some special good, as appears from what was said above ...

Q2823: Whether heretics and those who are cut off from the Church can confer Orders?

On this question four opinions are mentioned in the text ...

OF THE IMPEDIMENTS TO THIS SACRAMENT

Q2824: Whether the female sex is an impediment to receiving Orders?

Certain things are required in the recipient of a sacrament as being requisite for the validity of the sacrament, and if such things be lacking, one can receive neither the sacrament nor the reality of the sacrament...

Q2825: Whether boys and those who lack the use of reason can receive Orders?

Boyhood and other defects which remove the use of reason occasion an impediment to act...

Q2826: Whether the state of slavery is an impediment to receiving Orders?

By receiving Orders a man pledges himself to the Divine offices...

Q2827: Whether a man should be debarred from receiving Orders on account of homicide?

All the Orders bear a relation to the sacrament of the Eucharist, which is the sacrament of the peace vouchsafed to us by the shedding of Christ's blood...

Q2828: Whether those of illegitimate birth should be debarred from receiving Orders?

Those who are ordained are placed in a position of dignity over others...

Q2829: Whether lack of members should be an impediment?

As appears from what we have said above, a man is disqualified from receiving Orders, either on account of an impediment to the act, or on account of an impediment affecting his personal comeliness...

OF THE THINGS ANNEXED TO THE SACRAMENT OF ORDER

Q2830: Whether those who are ordained ought to wear the tonsure?

It is becoming for those who apply themselves to the Divine ministry to be shaven or tonsured in the form of a crown by reason of the shape...

Q2831: Whether the tonsure is an Order?

The ministers of the Church are severed from the people in order that they may give themselves entirely to the Divine worship...

Q2832: Whether by receiving the tonsure a man renounces temporal goods?

Clerics by receiving the tonsure, do not renounce their patrimony or other temporalities; since the possession of earthly things is not contrary to the Divine worship to which clerics are appointed, although excessive care for such things is; for as Gregory says, "it is not wealth but the love of wealth that is sinful"...

Q2833: Whether above the priestly Order there ought to be an episcopal power?

A priest has two acts: one is the principal, namely to consecrate the body of Christ. the other is secondary, namely to prepare God's people for the reception of this sacrament, as stated above ...

Q2834: Whether the episcopate is an Order?

Order may be understood in two ways...

Q2835: Whether in the Church there can be anyone above the bishops?

Wherever there are several authorities directed to one purpose, there must needs be one universal authority over the particular authorities, because in all virtues and acts the order is according to the order of their ends ...

Q2836: Whether the vestments of the ministers are fittingly instituted in the Church?

The vestments of the ministers denote the qualifications required of them for handling Divine things...

MATRIMONY

Q2837: Whether matrimony is of natural law?

A thing is said to be natural in two ways...

Q2838: Whether matrimony still comes under a precept?

Nature inclines to a thing in two ways...

Q2839: Whether the marriage act is always sinful?

If we suppose the corporeal nature to be created by the good God we cannot hold that those things which pertain to the preservation of the corporeal nature and to which nature inclines, are altogether evil; wherefore, since the inclination to beget an offspring whereby the specific nature is preserved is from nature, it is impossible to maintain that the act of begetting children is altogether unlawful, so that it be impossible to find the mean of virtue therein; unless we suppose, as some are mad enough to assert, that corruptible things were created by an evil god, whence perhaps the opinion mentioned in the text is derived ; wherefore this is a most wicked heresy.

Q2840: Whether the marriage act is meritorious?

Since no act proceeding from a deliberate will is indifferent, as stated in the Second Book, the marriage act is always either sinful or meritorious in one who is in a state of grace...

OF MATRIMONY AS A SACRAMENT

Q2841: Whether matrimony is a sacrament?

A sacrament denotes a sanctifying remedy against sin offered to man under sensible signs...

Q2842: Whether this sacrament ought to have been instituted before sin was committed?

Nature inclines to marriage with a certain good in view, which good varies according to the different states of man, wherefore it was necessary for matrimony to be variously instituted in the various states of man in reference to that good...

Q2843: Whether matrimony confers grace?

There have been three opinions on this point...

Q2844: Whether carnal intercourse is an integral part of this sacrament?

Integrity is twofold...

OF MATRIMONY WITH REGARD TO THE BETROTHAL

Q2845: Whether a betrothal is a promise of future marriage?

Consent to conjugal union if expressed in words of the future does not make a marriage, but a promise of marriage; and this promise is called "a betrothal from plighting one's troth," as Isidore says ...

Q2846: Whether seven years is fittingly assigned as the age for betrothal?

The age of seven years is fixed reasonably enough by law for the contracting of betrothals, for since a betrothal is a promise of the future, as already stated, it follows that they are within the competency of those who can make a promise in some way, and this is only for those who can have some foresight of the future, and this requires the use of reason, of which three degrees are to be observed, according to the Philosopher ...

Q2847: Whether a betrothal can be dissolved?

In all the cases mentioned above the betrothal that has been contracted is dissolved, but in different ways...

OF THE DEFINITION OF MATRIMONY

Q2848: Whether matrimony is a kind of joining?

A joining denotes a kind of uniting, and so wherever things are united there must be a joining...

Q2849: Whether matrimony is fittingly named?

Three things may be considered in matrimony...

Q2850: Whether matrimony is fittingly defined in the text?

As stated above, three things are to be considered in matrimony, namely its cause, its essence, and its effect; and accordingly we find three definitions given of matrimony...

OF THE MARRIAGE CONSENT CONSIDERED IN ITSELF

Q2851: Whether consent is the efficient cause of matrimony?

In every sacrament there is a spiritual operation by means of a material operation which signifies it; thus in Baptism the inward spiritual cleansing is effected by a bodily cleansing...

Q2852: Whether the consent needs to be expressed in words?

As stated above, the marriage union is effected in the same way as the bond in material contracts...

Q2853: Whether consent given in words expressive of the future makes a marriage?

The sacramental causes produce their effect by signifying it; hence they effect what they signify...

Q2854: Whether, in the absence of inward consent, a marriage is made by consent given in words of the present?

The outward cleansing stands in the same relation to baptism as the expression of words to this sacrament, as stated above ...

Q2855: Whether consent given secretly in words of the present makes a marriage?

Just as in the other sacraments certain things are essential to the sacrament, and if they are omitted there is no sacrament, while certain things belong to the solemnization of the sacrament, and if these be omitted the sacrament is nevertheless validly performed, although it is a sin to omit them; so, too, consent expressed in words of the present between persons lawfully qualified to contract makes a marriage, because these two conditions are essential to the sacrament; while all else belongs to the solemnization of the sacrament, as being done in order that the marriage may be more fittingly performed...

OF THE CONSENT TO WHICH AN OATH OR CARNAL INTERCOURSE IS APPENDED

Q2856: Whether an oath added to the consent that is expressed in words of the future tense makes a marriage?

An oath is employed in confirmation of one's words; wherefore it confirms that only which is signified by the words, nor does it change their signification...

Q2857: Whether carnal intercourse after consent expressed in words of the future makes a marriage?

We may speak of marriage in two ways...

OF COMPULSORY AND CONDITIONAL CONSENT

Q2858: Whether a compulsory consent is possible?

Compulsion or violence is twofold...

Q2859: Whether a constant man can be compelled by fear?

By fear influencing a man we mean his being compelled by fear...

Q2860: Whether compulsory consent invalidates a marriage?

The marriage bond is everlasting...

Q2861: Whether compulsory consent makes a marriage as regards the party who uses compulsion?

Since marriage is a kind of relation, and a relation cannot arise in one of the terms without arising in the other, it follows that whatever is an impediment to matrimony in the one, is an impediment to matrimony in the other; since it is impossible for a man to be the husband of one who is not his wife, or for a woman to be a wife without a husband, just as it is impossible to be a mother without having a child...

Q2862: Whether conditional consent makes a marriage?

The condition made is either of the present or of the future...

Q2863: Whether one can be compelled by one's father's command to marry?

Since in marriage there is a kind of perpetual service, as it were, a father cannot by his command compel his son to marry, since the latter is of free condition: but he may induce him for a reasonable cause; and thus the son will be affected by his father's command in the same way as he is affected by that cause, so that if the cause be compelling as indicating either obligation or fitness, his father's command will compel him in the same measure: otherwise he may not compel him.

OF THE OBJECT OF THE CONSENT

Q2864: Whether the consent that makes a marriage is a consent to carnal intercourse?

The consent that makes a marriage is a consent to marriage, because the proper effect of the will is the thing willed...

Q2865: Whether marriage can result from one person's consent to take another for a base motive?

The final cause of marriage may be taken as twofold, namely essential and accidental...

OF THE MARRIAGE GOODS*

Q2866: Whether certain blessings are necessary in order to excuse marriage?

No wise man should allow himself to lose a thing except for some compensation in the shape of an equal or better good...

Q2867: Whether the goods of marriage are sufficiently enumerated?

Matrimony is instituted both as an office of nature and as a sacrament of the Church...

Q2868: Whether the sacrament is the chief of the marriage goods?

This or that may be more important to a thing in two ways, either because it is more essential or because it is more excellent...

Q2869: Whether the marriage act is excused by the aforesaid goods?

An act is said to be excused in two ways...

Q2870: Whether the marriage act can be excused without the marriage goods?

Just as the marriage goods, in so far as they consist in a habit, make a marriage honest and holy, so too, in so far as they are in the actual intention, they make the marriage act honest, as regards those two marriage goods which relate to the marriage act...

Q2871: Whether it is a mortal sin for a man to have knowledge of his wife, with the intention not of a marriage good but merely of pleasure?

Some say that whenever pleasure is the chief motive for the marriage act it is a mortal sin; that when it is an indirect motive it is a venial sin; and that when it spurns the pleasure altogether and is displeasing, it is wholly void of venial sin; so that it would be a mortal sin to seek pleasure in this act, a venial sin to take the pleasure when offered, but that perfection requires one to detest it...

OF THE IMPEDIMENTS OF MARRIAGE, IN GENERAL

Q2872: Whether it is fitting that impediments should be assigned to marriage?

In marriage, as in other sacraments, there are certain things essential to marriage, and others that belong to its solemnization...

OF THE IMPEDIMENT OF ERROR

Q2873: Whether it is right to reckon error as an impediment to marriage?

Whatever hinders a cause, of its very nature hinders the effect likewise...

Q2874: Whether every error is an impediment to matrimony?

Just as error, through causing involuntariness, is an excuse from sin, so on the same count is it an impediment to marriage...

OF THE IMPEDIMENT OF THE CONDITION OF SLAVERY

Q2875: Whether the condition of slavery is an impediment to matrimony?

In the marriage contract one party is bound to the other in the matter of paying the debt; wherefore if one who thus binds himself is unable to pay the debt, ignorance of this inability, on the side of the party to whom he binds himself, voids the contract...

Q2876: Whether a slave can marry without his master's consent?

As stated above, the positive law arises out of the natural law, and consequently slavery, which is of positive law, cannot be prejudicious to those things that are of natural law...

Q2877: Whether slavery can supervene to marriage?

A husband is subject to his wife in those things which pertain to the act of nature; in these things they are equal, and the subjection of slavery does not extend thereto...

Q2878: Whether children should follow the condition of their father?

According to civil law the offspring follows the womb: and this is reasonable since the offspring derives its formal complement from the father, but the substance of the body from the mother...

OF THE IMPEDIMENT OF VOWS AND ORDERS

Q2879: Whether marriage already contracted should be annulled by the obligation of a simple vow?

A thing ceases to be in one man's power from the fact that it passes into the power of another...

Q2880: Whether a solemn vow dissolves a marriage already contracted?

All agree that as a solemn vow is an impediment to the contracting of marriage, so it invalidates the contract...

Q2881: Whether order is an impediment to matrimony?

By a certain fittingness the very nature of holy order requires that it should be an impediment to marriage: because those who are in holy orders handle the sacred vessels and the sacraments: wherefore it is becoming that they keep their bodies clean by continence ...

Q2882: Whether a sacred order cannot supervene to matrimony?

Marriage is not an impediment to the receiving of sacred orders, since if a married man receive sacred orders, even though his wife be unwilling, he receives the character of order: but he lacks the exercise of his order...

OF THE IMPEDIMENT OF CONSANGUINITY

Q2883: Whether consanguinity is rightly defined?

According to the Philosopher "all friendship is based on some kind of fellowship"...

Q2884: Whether consanguinity is fittingly distinguished by degrees and lines?

Consanguinity as stated is a certain propinquity based on the natural communication by the act of procreation whereby nature is propagated...

Q2885: Whether consanguinity is an impediment to marriage by virtue of the natural law?

In relation to marriage a thing is said to be contrary to the natural law if it prevents marriage from reaching the end for which it was instituted...

Q2886: Whether the degrees of consanguinity that are an impediment to marriage could be fixed by the Church?

The degrees within which consanguinity has been an impediment to marriage have varied according to various times...

OF THE IMPEDIMENT OF AFFINITY

Q2887: Whether a person contracts affinity through the marriage of a blood-relation?

A certain natural friendship is founded on natural fellowship...

Q2888: Whether affinity remains after the death of husband or wife?

A relation ceases in two ways: in one way through the corruption of its subject, in another way by the removal of its cause; thus likeness ceases when one of the like subjects dies, or when the quality that caused the likeness is removed...

Q2889: Whether unlawful intercourse causes affinity?

According to the Philosopher the union of husband and wife is said to be natural chiefly on account of the procreation of offspring, and secondly on account of the community of works: the former of which belongs to marriage by reason of carnal copulation, and the latter, in so far as marriage is a partnership directed to a common life...

Q2890: Whether affinity is caused by betrothal?

Just as a betrothal has not the conditions of a perfect marriage, but is a preparation for marriage, so betrothal causes not affinity as marriage does, but something like affinity...

Q2891: Whether affinity is a cause of affinity?

There are two ways in which one thing proceeds from another: in one way a thing proceeds from another in likeness of species, as a man is begotten of a man: in another way one thing proceeds from another, not in likeness of species; and this process is always towards a lower species, as instanced in all equivocal agents...

Q2892: Whether affinity is an impediment to marriage?

Affinity that precedes marriage hinders marriage being contracted and voids the contract, for the same reason as consanguinity...

Q2893: Whether affinity in itself admits of degrees?

A thing does not of itself admit of being divided except in reference to something belonging to it by reason of its genus: thus animal is divided into rational and irrational and not into white and black...

Q2894: Whether the degrees of affinity extend in the same way as the degrees of consanguinity?

Since the degrees of affinity are reckoned according to the degrees of consanguinity, the degrees of affinity must needs be the same in number as those of consanguinity...

Q2895: Whether a marriage contracted by persons with the degrees of affinity or consanguinity should always be annulled?

Since all copulation apart from lawful marriage is a mortal sin, which the Church uses all her endeavors to prevent, it belongs to her to separate those between whom there cannot be valid marriage, especially those related by blood or by affinity, who cannot without incest be united in the flesh.

Q2896: Whether it is necessary to proceed by way of accusation for the annulment of a marriage contracted by persons related to each other by affinity or consanguinity?

Accusation is instituted lest the guilty be tolerated as though they were innocent...

Q2897: Whether in a suit of this kind one should proceed by hearing witnesses in the same way as in other suits?

In this kind of lawsuit as in others, truth must be unveiled by witnesses: yet, as the lawyers say, there are many things peculiar to this suit; namely that "the same person can be accuser and witness; that evidence is not taken 'on oath of calumny,' since it is a quasi-spiritual lawsuit; that relatives are allowed as witnesses; that the juridical order is not perfectly observed, since if the denunciation has been made, and the suit is uncontested, the defendant may be excommunicated if contumacious; that hearsay evidence is admitted; and that witnesses may be called after the publication of the names of the witnesses"...

OF THE IMPEDIMENT OF SPIRITUAL RELATIONSHIP

Q2898: Whether spiritual relationship is an impediment to marriage?

Just as by carnal procreation man receives natural being, so by the sacraments he receives the spiritual being of grace...

Q2899: Whether spiritual relationship is contracted by baptism only?

There are three opinions on this question...

Q2900: Whether spiritual relationship is contracted between the person baptized and the person who raises him from the sacred font?

Just as in carnal generation a person is born of a father and mother, so in spiritual generation a person is born again a son of God as Father, and of the Church as Mother...

Q2901: Whether spiritual relationship passes from husband to wife?

A may become co-parent with B in two ways...

Q2902: Whether spiritual relationship passes to the godfather's carnal children?

A son is something of his father and not conversely : wherefore spiritual relationship passes from father to his carnal son and not conversely...

OF LEGAL RELATIONSHIP, WHICH IS BY ADOPTION

Q2903: Whether adoption is rightly defined?

Art imitates nature and supplies the defect of nature where nature is deficient...

Q2904: Whether a tie that is an impediment to marriage is contracted through adoption?

The Divine law especially forbids marriage between those persons who have to live together lest, as Rabbi Moses observes, if it were lawful for them to have carnal intercourse, there should be more room for concupiscence to the repression of which marriage is directed...

Q2905: Whether legal relationship is contracted only between the adopting father and the adopted child?

Legal relationship is of three kinds...

OF THE IMPEDIMENTS OF IMPOTENCE, SPELL, FRENZY OR MADNESS, INCEST AND DEFECTIVE AGE

Q2906: Whether impotence is an impediment to marriage?

In marriage there is a contract whereby one is bound to pay the other the marital debt: wherefore just as in other contracts, the bond is unfitting if a person bind himself to what he cannot give or do, so the marriage contract is unfitting, if it be made by one who cannot pay the marital debt...

Q2907: Whether a spell can be an impediment to marriage?

Some have asserted that witchcraft is nothing in the world but an imagining of men who ascribed to spells those natural effects the causes of which are hidden...

Q2908: Whether madness is an impediment to marriage?

The madness is either previous or subsequent to marriage...

Q2909: Whether marriage is annulled by the husband committing incest with his wife's sister?

If a man has connection with the sister or other relative of his wife before contracting marriage, even after his betrothal, the marriage should be broken off on account of the resultant affinity...

Q2910: Whether defective age is an impediment to marriage?

Since marriage is effected by way of a contract, it comes under the ordinance of positive law like other contracts...

OF DISPARITY OF WORSHIP AS AN IMPEDIMENT TO MARRIAGE

Q2911: Whether a believer can marry an unbeliever?

The chief good of marriage is the offspring to be brought up to the worship of God...

Q2912: Whether there can be marriage between unbelievers?

Marriage was instituted chiefly for the good of the offspring, not only as to its begetting---since this can be effected even without marriage---but also as to its advancement to a perfect state, because everything intends naturally to bring its effect to perfection...

Q2913: Whether the husband, being converted to the faith, may remain with his wife is she be unwilling to be converted?

The faith of a married person does not dissolve but perfects the marriage...

Q2914: Whether a believer can, after his conversion, put away his unbelieving wife if she be willing to cohabit with him without insult to the Creator?

Different things are competent and expedient to man according as his life is of one kind or of another...

Q2915: Whether the believer who leaves his unbelieving wife can take another wife?

When either husband or wife is converted to the faith the other remaining in unbelief, a distinction must be made...

Q2916: Whether other sins dissolve marriage?

Bodily fornication and unbelief have a special contrariety to the goods of marriage, as stated above ...

OF WIFE-MURDER

Q2917: Whether it is lawful for a man to kill his wife if she be discovered in the act of adultery?

It happens in two ways that a husband kills his wife...

Q2918: Whether wife-murder is an impediment to marriage?

By the Church's decree wife-murder is an impediment to marriage...

OF THE IMPEDIMENT TO MARRIAGE, ARISING FROM A SOLEMN VOW

Q2919: Whether one party after the marriage has been consummated can enter religion without the other's consent?

No one can make an offering to God of what belongs to another...

Q2920: Whether before the marriage has been consummated one consort can enter religion without the other's consent?

Before marital intercourse there is only a spiritual bond between husband and wife, but afterwards there is a carnal bond between them...

Q2921: Whether the wife may take another husband if her husband has entered religion before the consummation of the marriage?

Just as bodily death of the husband dissolves the marriage tie in such a way that the wife may marry whom she will, according to the statement of the Apostle ; so too after the husband's spiritual death by entering religion, she can marry whom she will.

OF THE IMPEDIMENT THAT SUPERVENES TO MARRIAGE AFTER ITS CONSUMMATION, NAMELY FORNICATION

Q2922: Whether it is lawful for a husband to put away his wife on account of fornication?

Our Lord permitted a man to put away his wife on account of fornication, in punishment of the unfaithful party and in favor of the faithful party, so that the latter is not bound to marital intercourse with the unfaithful one...

Q2923: Whether the husband is bound by precept to put away his wife when she is guilty of fornication?

The putting away of a wife guilty of fornication was prescribed in order that the wife might be corrected by means of that punishment...

Q2924: Whether the husband can on his own judgment put away his wife on account of fornication?

A husband can put away his wife in two ways...

Q2925: Whether in a case of divorce husband and wife should be judged on a par with each other?

In a case of divorce husband and wife are judged on a par with each other, in the sense that the same things are lawful or unlawful to the one as to the other: but they are not judged on a par with each other in reference to those things, since the reason for divorce is greater in one spouse than in the other, although there is sufficient reason for divorce in both...

Q2926: Whether a husband can marry again after having a divorce?

Nothing supervenient to marriage can dissolve it: wherefore adultery does not make a marriage cease to be valid...

Q2927: Whether husband and wife may be reconciled after being divorced?

If the wife has mended her ways by repenting of her sin after the divorce, her husband may become reconciled to her; but if she remain incorrigible in her sin, he must not take her back, for the same reason which forbade him to retain her while she refused to desist from sin.

OF SECOND MARRIAGES

Q2928: Whether a second marriage is lawful?

The marriage tie lasts only until death, wherefore at the death of either spouse the marriage tie ceases: and consequently when one dies the other is not hindered from marrying a second time on account of the previous marriage...

Q2929: Whether a second marriage is a sacrament?

Wherever we find the essentials of a sacrament, there is a true sacrament...

OF THE THINGS ANNEXED TO MARRIAGE, AND FIRST OF THE PAYMENT OF THE MARRIAGE DEBT

Q2930: Whether husband and wife are mutually bound to the payment of the marriage debt?

Marriage was instituted especially as fulfilling an office of nature...

Q2931: Whether a husband is bound to pay the debt if his wife does not ask for it?

The debt may be demanded in two ways...

Q2932: Whether it is allowable for a menstruous wife to ask for the marriage debt?

It was forbidden in the Law to approach to a menstruous woman, for two reasons both on account of her uncleanness, and on account of the harm that frequently resulted to the offspring from such intercourse...

Q2933: Whether a menstruous woman should or may lawfully pay the marriage debt to her husband if he ask for it?

In this regard some have asserted that a menstruous woman may not pay the debt even as she may not ask for it...

Q2934: Whether husband and wife are equal in the marriage act?

Equality is twofold, of quantity and of proportion...

Q2935: Whether husband and wife can take a vow contrary to the marriage debt without their mutual consent?

A vow is a voluntary act, as its very name implies: and consequently a vow can only be about those goods which are subject to our will, and those in which one person is bound to another do not come under this head...

Q2936: Whether it is forbidden to demand the debt on holy days?

Although the marriage act is void of sin, nevertheless since it oppresses the reason on account of the carnal pleasure, it renders man unfit for spiritual things...

Q2937: Whether it is a mortal sin to ask for the debt at a holy time?

To ask for the debt on a feast day is not a circumstance drawing a sin into another species; wherefore it cannot aggravate infinitely...

Q2938: Whether one spouse is bound to pay the debt to the other at a festal time?

Since the wife has power of her husband's body, and "vice versa," with regard to the act of procreation, the one is bound to pay the debt to the other, at any season or hour, with due regard to the decorum required in such matters, for this must not be done at once openly.

Q2939: Whether weddings should be forbidden at certain times?

When the newly married spouse is given to her husband, the minds of husband and wife are taken up with carnal preoccupations by reason of the very newness of things, wherefore weddings are wont to be signalized by much unrestrained rejoicing...

OF PLURALITY OF WIVES

Q2940: Whether it is against the natural law to have several wives?

All natural things are imbued with certain principles whereby they are enabled not only to exercise their proper actions, but also to render those actions proportionate to their end, whether such actions belong to a thing by virtue of its generic nature, or by virtue of its specific nature: thus it belongs to a magnet to be borne downwards by virtue of its generic nature, and to attract iron by virtue of its specific nature...

Q2941: Whether it was ever lawful to have several wives?

As stated above, plurality of wives is said to be against the natural law, not as regards its first precepts, but as regards the secondary precepts, which like conclusions are drawn from its first precepts...

Q2942: Whether it is against the natural law to have a concubine?

As stated above, an action is said to be against the natural law, if it is not in keeping with the due end intended by nature, whether through not being directed thereto by the action of the agent, or through being directed thereto by the action of the agent, or through being in itself improportionate to that end...

Q2943: Whether it is a mortal sin to have intercourse with a concubine?

As we have already stated, those sins are mortal in their genus which violate the bond of friendship between man and God, and between man and man; for such sins are against the two precepts of charity which is the life of the soul...

Q2944: Whether it was ever lawful to have a concubine?

Rabbi Moses says that before the time of the Law fornication was not a sin; and he proved his assertion from the fact that Juda had intercourse with Thamar...

OF BIGAMY AND OF THE IRREGULARITY CONTRACTED THEREBY

Q2945: Whether irregularity attaches to bigamy?

By the sacrament of order a man is appointed to the ministry of the sacraments; and he who has to administer the sacraments to others must suffer from no defect in the sacraments...

Q2946: Whether irregularity results from bigamy, when one husband has two wives, one in law, the other in fact?

Irregularity is contracted in the two second kinds of bigamy, for although in the one there is no sacrament, there is a certain likeness to a sacrament...

Q2947: Whether irregularity is contracted by marrying one who is not a virgin?

In the union of Christ with the Church unity is found on either side...

Q2948: Whether bigamy is removed by Baptism?

Baptism removes sin, but does not dissolve marriage...

Q2949: Whether it is lawful for a bigamist to receive a dispensation?

Irregularity attaches to bigamy not by natural, but by positive law; nor again is it one of the essentials of order that a man be not a bigamist, which is evident from the fact that if a bigamist present himself for orders, he receives the character...

OF THE BILL OF DIVORCE

Q2950: Whether inseparableness of the wife is of natural law?

By the intention of nature marriage is directed to the rearing of the offspring, not merely for a time, but throughout its whole life...

Q2951: Whether it may have been lawful by dispensation to put away a wife?

In the commandments, especially those which in some way are of natural law, a dispensation is like a change in the natural course of things: and this course is subject to a twofold change...

Q2952: Whether it was lawful to divorce a wife under the Mosaic law?

On this point there are two opinions...

Q2953: Whether it was lawful for a divorced wife to have another husband?

According to the first above mentioned opinion, she sinned by marrying another husband after being divorced, because her first marriage still held good...

Q2954: Whether a husband could lawfully take back the wife he had divorced?

In the law concerning the bill of divorce two things were permitted, namely for the husband to put away the wife, and for the divorced wife to take another husband; and two things were commanded, namely that the bill of divorce should be written, and secondly that the husband who divorced his wife could not take her back...

Q2955: Whether the reason for divorce was hatred for the wife?

It is the general opinion of holy men that the reason for permission being given to divorce a wife was the avoidance of wife-murder...

Q2956: Whether the causes of divorce had to be written in the bill?

The causes for divorce were not particularized in the bill, but were indicated in a general way, so as to prove the justice of the divorce...

OF ILLEGITIMATE CHILDREN

Q2957: Whether children born out of true marriage are illegitimate?

Children are of four conditions...

Q2958: Whether children should suffer any loss through being illegitimate?

A person is said to incur a loss for some cause in two ways: First, because he is deprived of his due, and thus an illegitimate child incurs no loss...

Q2959: Whether an illegitimate son can be legitimized?

An illegitimate child can be legitimized, not so that he be born of a legitimate intercourse, because this intercourse is a thing of the past and can never be legitimized from the moment that it was once illegitimate...

TREATISE ON THE RESURRECTION

OF MATTERS CONCERNING THE RESURRECTION, AND FIRST OF THE PLACE WHERE SOULS ARE AFTER DEATH

Q2960: Whether places are appointed to receive souls after death?

Although spiritual substances do not depend on a body in respect of their being, nevertheless the corporeal world is governed by God by means of the spiritual world, as asserted by Augustine and Gregory ...

Q2961: Whether souls are conveyed to heaven or hell immediately after death?

Even as in bodies there is gravity or levity whereby they are borne to their own place which is the end of their movement, so in souls there is merit or demerit whereby they reach their reward or punishment, which are the ends of their deeds...

Q2962: Whether the souls who are in heaven or hell are able to go from thence?

There are two ways of understanding a person to leave hell or heaven...

Q2963: Whether the limbo of hell is the same as Abraham's bosom?

After death men's souls cannot find rest save by the merit of faith, because "he that cometh to God must believe" ...

Q2964: Whether limbo is the same as the hell of the damned?

The abodes of souls after death may be distinguished in two ways; either as to their situation, or as to the quality of the places, inasmuch as souls are punished or rewarded in certain places...

Q2965: Whether the limbo of children is the same as the limbo of the Fathers?

The limbo of the Fathers and the limbo of children, without any doubt, differ as to the quality of punishment or reward...

Q2966: Whether so many abodes should be distinguished?

The abodes of souls are distinguished according to the souls' various states...

OF THE QUALITY OF THE SOUL AFTER LEAVING THE BODY, AND OF THE PUNISHMENT INFLICTED ON IT BY MATERIAL FIRE

Q2967: Whether the sensitive powers remain in the separated soul?

There are many opinions on this question...

Q2968: Whether the acts of the sensitive powers remain in the separated soul?

Some distinguish two kinds of acts in the sensitive powers: external acts which the soul exercises through the body. and these do not remain in the separated soul; and internal acts which the soul performs by itself; and these will be in the separated soul...

Q2969: Whether the separated soul can suffer from a bodily fire?

Given that the fire of hell is not so called metaphorically, nor an imaginary fire, but a real corporeal fire, we must needs say that the soul will suffer punishment from a corporeal fire, since our Lord said that this fire was prepared for the devil and his angels, who are incorporeal even as the soul...

OF THE SUFFRAGES FOR THE DEAD

Q2970: Whether the suffrages of one person can profit others?

Our actions can avail for two purposes...

Q2971: Whether the dead can be assisted by the works of the living?

Charity, which is the bond uniting the members of the Church, extends not only to the living, but also to the dead who die in charity...

Q2972: Whether suffrages performed by sinners profit the dead?

Two things may be considered in the suffrages performed by the wicked...

Q2973: Whether suffrages offered by the living for the dead profit those who offer them?

The work of suffrage that is done for another may be considered in two ways...

Q2974: Whether suffrages profit those who are in hell?

There have been three opinions about the damned...

Q2975: Whether suffrages profit those who are in purgatory?

The punishment of purgatory is intended to supplement the satisfaction which was not fully completed in the body...

Q2976: Whether suffrages avail the children who are in limbo?

Unbaptized children are not detained in limbo save because they lack the state of grace...

Q2977: Whether suffrages profit the saints in heaven?

Suffrage by its very nature implies the giving of some assistance, which does not apply to one who suffers no default: since no one is competent to be assisted except he who is in need...

Q2978: Whether the prayers of the Church, the sacrifice of the altar and alms profit the departed?

The suffrages of the living profit the dead in so far as the latter are united to the living in charity, and in so far as the intention of the living is directed to the dead...

Q2979: Whether the indulgences of the Church profit the dead?

An indulgence may profit a person in two ways: in one way, principally; in another, secondarily...

Q2980: Whether the burial service profits the dead?

We have recourse to burial for the sake of both the living and the dead...

Q2981: Whether suffrages offered for one deceased person profit the person for whom they are offered more than others?

There have been two opinions on this question...

Q2982: Whether suffrages offered for several are of as much value to each one as if they had been offered for each in particular?

If the value of suffrages be considered according as it is derived from the virtue of charity uniting the members of the Church together, suffrages offered for several persons avail each one as much as if they were offered for one alone, because charity is not diminished if its effect be divided among many, in fact rather is it increased; and in like manner joy increases through being shared by many, as Augustine says ...

Q2983: Whether general suffrages avail those for whom special suffrages are not offered, as much as special suffrages avail those for whom they are offered in addition to general suffrages?

The reply to this question depends on that which is given to the twelfth inquiry : for if the suffrages offered for one person in particular avail indifferently for all, then all suffrages are common; and consequently one for whom the special suffrages are not offered will be assisted as much as the one for whom they are offered, if he be equally worthy...

OF PRAYERS WITH REGARD TO THE SAINTS IN HEAVEN

Q2984: Whether the saints have knowledge of our prayers?

The Divine essence is a sufficient medium for knowing all things, and this is evident from the fact that God, by seeing His essence, sees all things...

Q2985: Whether we ought to call upon the saints to pray for us?

According to Dionysius the order established by God among things is that "the last should be led to God by those that are midway between"...

Q2986: Whether the prayers which the saints pour forth to God for us are always granted?

The saints are said to pray for us in two ways...

OF THE SIGNS THAT WILL PRECEDE THE JUDGMENT

Q2987: Whether any signs will precede the Lord's coming to judgment?

When Christ shall come to judge He will appear in the form of glory, on account of the authority becoming a judge...

Q2988: Whether towards the time of the judgment the sun and moon will be darkened in very truth?

If we speak of the sun and moon in respect of the very moment of Christ's coming, it is not credible that they will be darkened through being bereft of their light, since when Christ comes and the saints rise again the whole world will be renewed, as we shall state further on ...

Q2989: Whether the virtues of heaven will be moved when our Lord shall come?

Virtue is twofold as applied to the angels, as Dionysius states ...

OF THE FIRE OF THE FINAL CONFLAGRATION

Q2990: Whether the world is to be cleansed?

Since the world was, in a way, made for man's sake, it follows that, when man shall be glorified in the body, the other bodies of the world shall also be changed to a better state, so that it is rendered a more fitting place for him and more pleasant to look upon...

Q2991: Whether the cleansing of the world will be effected by fire?

As stated above this cleansing of the world will remove from it the stain contracted from sin, and the impurity resulting from mixture, and will be a disposition to the perfection of glory; and consequently in this threefold respect it will be most fitting for it to be effected by fire...

Q2992: Whether the fire whereby the world will be cleansed will be of the same species with elemental fire?

We meet with three opinions on this question...

Q2993: Whether that fire will cleanse also the higher heavens?

The cleansing of the world will be for the purpose of removing from bodies the disposition contrary to the perfection of glory, and this perfection is the final consummation of the universe: and this disposition is to be found in all bodies, but differently in different bodies...

Q2994: Whether that fire will consume the other elements?

There are many opinions on this question...

Q2995: Whether all the elements will be cleansed by that fire?

Some say that the fire in question will rise to the summit of the space containing the four elements: so that the elements would be entirely cleansed both from the stain of sin by which also the higher parts of the elements were infected, and again from corruption, since the elements are corruptible in all their parts...

Q2996: Whether the fire of the final conflagration is to follow the judgment?

The fire in question will in reality, as regards its beginning, precede the judgment...

Q2997: Whether that fire will have such an effect on men as is described?

This fire of the final conflagration, in so far as it will precede the judgment, will act as the instrument of Divine justice as well as by the natural virtue of fire...

Q2998: Whether that fire will engulf the wicked?

The entire cleansing of the world and the renewal for the purpose of cleansing will be directed to the renewal of man: and consequently the cleansing and renewal of the world must needs correspond with the cleansing and renewal of mankind...

OF THE RESURRECTION

Q2999: Whether there is to be a resurrection of the body?

According to the various opinions about man's last end there have been various opinions holding or denying the resurrection...

Q3000: Whether the resurrection will be for all without exception?

Those things, the reason of which comes from the nature of a species, must needs be found likewise in all the members of that same species...

Q3001: Whether the resurrection is natural?

A movement or an action stands related to nature in three ways...

OF THE CAUSE OF THE RESURRECTION

Q3002: Whether the resurrection of Christ is the cause of our resurrection?

Christ by reason of His nature is called the mediator of God and men: wherefore the Divine gifts are bestowed on men by means of Christ's humanity...

Q3003: Whether the sound of the trumpet will be the cause of our resurrection?

Cause and effect must needs in some way be united together, since mover and moved, maker and made, are simultaneous ...

Q3004: Whether the angels will do anything towards the resurrection?

According to Augustine "just as the grosser and inferior bodies are ruled in a certain order by the more subtle and more powerful bodies, so are all bodies ruled by God by the rational spirit of life": and Gregory speaks in the same sense ...

OF THE TIME AND MANNER OF THE RESURRECTION

Q3005: Whether the time of our resurrection should be delayed till the end of the world?

As Augustine states "Divine providence decreed that the grosser and lower bodies should be ruled in a certain order by the more subtle and powerful bodies": wherefore the entire matter of the lower bodies is subject to variation according to the movement of the heavenly bodies...

Q3006: Whether the time of our resurrection is hidden?

As Augustine says "as to the last age of the human race, which begins from our Lord's coming and lasts until the end of the world, it is uncertain of how many generations it will consist: even so old age, which is man's last age, has no fixed time according to the measure of the other ages, since sometimes alone it lasts as long a time as all the others"...

Q3007: Whether the resurrection will take place at night-time?

The exact time and hour at which the resurrection will be cannot be known for certain, as stated in the text ...

Q3008: Whether the resurrection will happen suddenly or by degrees?

At the resurrection something will be done by the ministry of the angels, and something immediately by the power of God, as stated above ...

OF THE TERM "WHEREFROM" OF THE RESURRECTION

Q3009: Whether death will be the term "wherefrom" of the resurrection in all cases?

The saints differ in speaking on this question, as may be seen in the text ...

Q3010: Whether all will rise again from ashes?

The same reasons by which we have shown that all rise again from death prove also that at the general resurrection all will rise again from ashes, unless the contrary, such as the hastening of their resurrection, be vouchsafed to certain persons by a special privilege of grace...

Q3011: Whether the ashes from which the human body will be restored have any natural inclination towards the soul which will be united to them?

Opinion is threefold on this point...

OF THE CONDITIONS OF THOSE WHO RISE AGAIN, AND FIRST OF THEIR IDENTITY

Q3012: Whether in the resurrection the soul will be reunited to the same identical body?

On this point the philosophers erred and certain modern heretics err...

Q3013: Whether it will be identically the same man that shall rise again?

The necessity of holding the resurrection arises from this---that man may obtain the last end for which he was made; for this cannot be accomplished in this life, nor in the life of the separated soul, as stated above : otherwise man would have been made in vain, if he were unable to obtain the end for which he was made...

Q3014: Whether the ashes of the human body must needs, by the resurrection, return to the same parts of the body that were dissolved into them?

In this question it makes a difference whether we ask what can be done without prejudice to identity, and what will be done for the sake of congruity...

OF THE INTEGRITY OF THE BODIES IN THE RESURRECTION

Q3015: Whether all the members of the human body will rise again?

As stated in De Anima ii, 4, "the soul stands in relation to the body not only as its form and end, but also as efficient cause"...

Q3016: Whether the hair and nails will rise again in the human body?

The soul is to the animated body, as art is to the work of art, and is to the parts of the body as art to its instruments: wherefore an animated body is called an organic body...

Q3017: Whether the humors will rise again in the body?

Whatever belongs to the integrity of human nature in those who take part in the resurrection will rise again, as stated above ...

Q3018: Whether whatever in the body belonged to the truth of human nature will rise again in it?

"Everything is related to truth in the same way as to being", because a thing is true when it is as it appears to him who actually knows it...

Q3019: Whether whatever was materially in a man's members will all rise again?

What is in man materially, is not directed to the resurrection, except in so far as it belongs to the truth of human nature; because it is in this respect that it bears a relation to the human souls...

OF THE QUALITY OF THOSE WHO RISE AGAIN

Q3020: Whether all will rise again of the same age?

Man will rise again without any defect of human nature, because as God founded human nature without a defect, even so will He restore it without defect...

Q3021: Whether all will rise again of the same stature?

At the resurrection human nature will be restored not only in the self-same species but also in the selfsame individual: and consequently we must observe in the resurrection what is requisite not only to the specific but also to the individual nature...

Q3022: Whether all will rise again of the male sex?

Just as, considering the nature of the individual, a different quantity is due to different men, so also, considering the nature of the individual, a different sex is due to different men...

Q3023: Whether all will rise again to animal life so as to exercise the functions of nutrition and generation?

The resurrection will not be necessary to man on account of his primary perfection, which consists in the integrity of those things that belong to his nature, since man can attain to this in his present state of life by the action of natural causes; but the necessity of the resurrection regards the attainment of his ultimate perfection, which consists in his reaching his ultimate end...

OF THE IMPASSIBILITY OF THE BODIES OF THE BLESSED AFTER THEIR RESURRECTION

Q3024: Whether the bodies of the saints will be impassible after the resurrection?

We speak of a thing being "passive" in two ways...

Q3025: Whether all will be equally impassible?

Impassibility may be considered in two ways, either in itself, or in respect of its cause...

Q3026: Whether impassibility excludes actual sensation from glorified bodies?

All are agreed that there is some sensation in the bodies of the blessed: else the bodily life of the saints after the resurrection would be likened to sleep rather than to vigilance...

Q3027: Whether in the blessed, after the resurrection, all the senses will be in act?

There are two opinions on this question...

OF THE SUBTLETY OF THE BODIES OF THE BLESSED

Q3028: Whether subtlety is a property of the glorified body?

Subtlety takes its name from the power to penetrate...

Q3029: Whether by reason of this subtlety a glorified body is able to be in the same place with another body not glorified?

It cannot be maintained that a glorified body, by reason of its subtlety, is able to be in the same place with another body, unless the obstacle to its being now in the same place with another body be removed by that subtlety...

Q3030: Whether it is possible, by a miracle, for two bodies to be in the same place?

As shown above the reason why two bodies must needs be in two places is that distinction in matter requires distinction in place...

Q3031: Whether one glorified body can be in the same place together with another glorified body?

The property of a glorified body does not make it able to be in the same place with another glorified body, nor again to be in the same place with a non-glorified body...

Q3032: Whether by virtue of its subtlety a glorified body will no longer need to be in an equal place?

A body is not related to place save through the medium of its proper dimensions, in respect of which a located body is confined through contact with the locating body...

Q3033: Whether the glorified body, by reason of its subtlety, will be impalpable?

Every palpable body is tangible, but not conversely...

OF THE AGILITY OF THE BODIES OF THE BLESSED

Q3034: Whether the glorified bodies will be agile?

The glorified body will be altogether subject to the glorified soul, so that not only will there be nothing in it to resist the will of the spirit, for it was even so in the case of Adam's body, but also from the glorified soul there will flow into the body a certain perfection, whereby it will become adapted to that subjection: and this perfection is called "the gift of the glorified body"...

Q3035: Whether the saints will never use their agility for the purpose of movement?

It is necessary to suppose that the glorified bodies are moved sometimes, since even Christ's body was moved in His ascension, and likewise the bodies of the saints, which will arise from the earth, will ascend to the empyrean...

Q3036: Whether the movement of the saints will be instantaneous?

Opinion is much divided on this point...

OF THE CLARITY OF THE BEATIFIED BODIES

Q3037: Whether clarity is becoming to the glorified body?

It is necessary to assert that after the resurrection the bodies of the saints will be lightsome, on account of the authority of Scripture which makes this promise...

Q3038: Whether the clarity of the glorified body is visible to the non-glorified eye?

Some have asserted that the clarity of the glorified body will not be visible to the non-glorified eye, except by a miracle...

Q3039: Whether a glorified body will be necessarily seen by a non-glorified body?

A visible object is seen, inasmuch as it acts on the sight...

OF THE CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH THE BODIES OF THE DAMNED WILL RISE AGAIN

Q3040: Whether the bodies of the damned will rise again with their deformities?

Deformity in the human body is of two kinds...

Q3041: Whether the bodies of the damned will be incorruptible?

Since in every movement there must needs be a principle of movement, movement or change may be withdrawn from a movable in two ways: first through absence of a principle of movement, secondly through an obstacle to the principle of movement...

Q3042: Whether the bodies of the damned will be impassible?

The principal cause of the bodies of the damned not being consumed by fire will be the Divine justice by which their bodies will be consigned to everlasting punishment...

TREATISE ON THE LAST THINGS

OF THE KNOWLEDGE WHICH, AFTER RISING AGAIN, MEN WILL HAVE AT THE JUDGMENT CONCERNING MERITS AND DEMERITS

Q3043: Whether after the resurrection every one will know what sins he has committed?

According to Rom. 2:15,16, "In the day when God shall judge" each one's conscience will bear witness to him and his thoughts will accuse and defend him...

Q3044: Whether every one will be able to read all that is in another's conscience?

At the last and general judgment it behooves the Divine justice, which now is in many ways hidden, to appear evidently to all...

Q3045: Whether all merits and demerits, one's own as well as those of others, will be seen by anyone at a single glance?

There are two opinions on this question...

OF THE GENERAL JUDGMENT, AS TO THE TIME AND PLACE AT WHICH IT WILL BE

Q3046: Whether there will be a general judgment?

Just as operation refers to the beginning wherefrom things receive their being, so judgment belongs to the term, wherein they are brought to their end...

Q3047: Whether the judgment will take place by word of mouth?

It is not possible to come to any certain conclusion about the truth of this question...

Q3048: Whether the time of the future judgment is unknown?

God is the cause of things by His knowledge...

Q3049: Whether the judgment will take place in the valley of Josaphat?

We cannot know with any great certainty the manner in which this judgment will take place, nor how men will gather together to the place of judgment; but it may be gathered from Scripture that in all probability He will descend in the neighborhood of Mount Olivet, even as He ascended from there, so as to show that He who descends is the same as He who ascended.

OF THOSE WHO WILL JUDGE AND OF THOSE WHO WILL BE JUDGED AT THE GENERAL JUDGMENT

Q3050: Whether any men will judge together with Christ?

To judge has several significations...

Q3051: Whether the judicial power corresponds to voluntary poverty?

The judicial power is due especially to poverty on three counts...

Q3052: Whether the angels will judge?

The judge's assessors must be conformed to the judge...

Q3053: Whether the demons will carry out the sentence of the Judge on the damned?

The Master in the text of Sentent. iv, D, 47 mentions two opinions on this question, both of which seem consistent with Divine justice, because it is just for man to be subjected to the devil for having sinned, and yet it is unjust for the demon to be over him...

Q3054: Whether all men will be present at the judgment?

The judicial power was bestowed on Christ as man, in reward for the humility which He showed forth in His passion...

Q3055: Whether the good will be judged at the judgment?

The judgment comprises two things, namely the discussion of merits and the payment of rewards...

Q3056: Whether the wicked will be judged?

The judgment as regards the sentencing to punishment for sin concerns all the wicked. whereas the judgment as regards the discussion of merits concerns only believers...

Q3057: Whether at the coming judgment the angels will be judged?

The judgment of discussion nowise concerns either the good or the wicked angels, since neither is any evil to be found in the good angels, nor is any good liable to judgment to be found in the wicked angels...

OF THE FORM OF THE JUDGE IN COMING TO THE JUDGMENT

Q3058: Whether Christ will judge under the form of His humanity?

Judgment requires a certain authority in the judge...

Q3059: Whether at the judgment Christ will appear in His glorified humanity?

Christ is called the mediator of God and men inasmuch as He satisfies for men and intercedes for them to the Father, and confers on men things which belong to the Father, according to Jn. 17:22, "The glory which Thou hast given Me, I have given to them"...

Q3060: Whether the Godhead can be seen by the wicked without joy?

In every object of appetite or of pleasure two things may be considered, namely the thing which is desired or which gives pleasure, and the aspect of appetibility or pleasurableness in that thing...

OF THE QUALITY OF THE WORLD AFTER THE JUDGMENT

Q3061: Whether the world will be renewed?

We believe all corporeal things to have been made for man's sake, wherefore all things are stated to be subject to him ...

Q3062: Whether the movement of the heavenly bodies will cease?

There are three opinions touching this question...

Q3063: Whether the brightness of the heavenly bodies will be increased at this renewal?

The renewal of the world is directed to the end that, after this renewal has taken place, God may become visible to man by signs so manifest as to be perceived as it were by his senses...

Q3064: Whether the elements will be renewed by an addition of brightness?

Just as there is a certain order between the heavenly spirits and the earthly or human spirits, so is there an order between heavenly bodies and earthly bodies...

Q3065: Whether the plants and animals will remain in this renewal?

Since the renewal of the world will be for man's sake it follows that it should be conformed to the renewal of man...

OF THE VISION OF THE DIVINE ESSENCE IN REFERENCE TO THE BLESSED*

Q3066: Whether the human intellect can attain to the vision of God in His essence?

Even as we hold by faith that the last end of man's life is to see God, so the philosophers maintained that man's ultimate happiness is to understand immaterial substances according to their being...

Q3067: Whether after the resurrection the saints will see God with the eyes of the body?

A thing is perceptible to the senses of the body in two ways, directly and indirectly...

Q3068: Whether the saints, seeing God, see all that God sees?

God by seeing his essence knows all things whatsoever that are, shall be, or have been: and He is said to know these things by His "knowledge of vision," because He knows them as though they were present in likeness to corporeal vision...

OF THE HAPPINESS OF THE SAINTS AND THEIR MANSIONS

Q3069: Whether the happiness of the saints will be greater after the judgment than before?

It is manifest that the happiness of the saints will increase in extent after the resurrection, because their happiness will then be not only in the soul but also in the body...

Q3070: Whether the degrees of beatitude should be called mansions?

Since local movement precedes all other movements, terms of movement, distance and the like are derived from local movement to all other movements according to the Philosopher ...

Q3071: Whether the various mansions are distinguished according to the various degrees of charity?

The distinctive principle of the mansions or degrees of beatitude is twofold, namely proximate and remote...

OF THE RELATIONS OF THE SAINTS TOWARDS THE DAMNED

Q3072: Whether the blessed in heaven will see the sufferings of the damned?

Nothing should be denied the blessed that belongs to the perfection of their beatitude...

Q3073: Whether the blessed pity the unhappiness of the damned?

Mercy or compassion may be in a person in two ways: first by way of passion, secondly by way of choice...

Q3074: Whether the blessed rejoice in the punishment of the wicked?

A thing may be a matter of rejoicing in two ways...

OF THE GIFTS* OF THE BLESSED

Q3075: Whether any gifts should be assigned as dowry to the blessed?

Without doubt the blessed when they are brought into glory are dowered by God with certain gifts for their adornment, and this adornment is called their dowry by the masters...

Q3076: Whether the dowry is the same as beatitude*?

There are two opinions on this question...

Q3077: Whether it is fitting that Christ should receive a dowry?

There are two opinions on this point...

Q3078: Whether the angels receive the dowries?

Without any doubt, whatever pertains to the endowments of the soul is befitting to the angels as it is to men...

Q3079: Whether three dowries of the soul are suitably assigned?

All agree in reckoning three dowries of the soul, in different ways however...

OF THE AUREOLES

Q3080: Whether the aureole is the same as the essential reward which is called the aurea?

Man's essential reward, which is his beatitude, consists in the perfect union of the soul with God, inasmuch as it enjoys God perfectly as seen and loved perfectly...

Q3081: Whether the aureole differs from the fruit?

Metaphorical expressions can be taken in various ways, according as we find resemblances to the various properties of the thing from which the comparison is taken...

Q3082: Whether a fruit is due to the virtue of continence alone?

A fruit is a reward due to a person in that he passes from the carnal to the spiritual life...

Q3083: Whether three fruits are fittingly assigned to the three parts of continence?

By continence, to which the fruit corresponds, man is brought to a kind of spiritual nature, by withdrawing from carnal things...

Q3084: Whether an aureole is due on account of virginity?

Where there is a notable kind of victory, a special crown is due...

Q3085: Whether an aureole is due to martyrs?

Just as in the spirit there is a conflict with the internal concupiscences, so is there in man a conflict with the passion that is inflicted from without...

Q3086: Whether an aureole is due to doctors?

Just as by virginity and martyrdom a person wins a most perfect victory over the flesh and the world, so is a most perfect victory gained over the devil, when a person not only refuses to yield to the devil's assaults, but also drives him out, not from himself alone, but from others also...

Q3087: Whether an aureole is due to Christ?

There are two opinions on this point...

Q3088: Whether an aureole is due to the angels?

An aureole is not due to the angels...

Q3089: Whether an aureole is also due to the body?

Properly speaking the aureole is in the mind: since it is joy in the works to which an aureole is due...

Q3090: Whether three aureoles are fittingly assigned, those of virgins, of martyrs, and of doctors?

An aureole is an exceptional reward corresponding to an exceptional victory: wherefore the three aureoles are assigned in accordance with the exceptional victories in the three conflicts which beset every man...

Q3091: Whether the virgin's aureole is the greatest of all?

Precedence of one aureole over another may be considered from two standpoints...

Q3092: Whether one person has an aureole more excellently than another person?

Since merit is somewhat the cause of reward, rewards must needs be diversified, according as merits are diversified: for the intension or remission of a thing follows from the intension or remission of its cause...

OF THE PUNISHMENT OF THE DAMNED

Q3093: Whether in hell the damned are tormented by the sole punishment of fire?

According to Basil, at the final cleansing of the world, there will be a separation of the elements, whatever is pure and noble remaining above for the glory of the blessed, and whatever is ignoble and sordid being cast down for the punishment of the damned: so that just as every creature will be to the blessed a matter of joy, so will all the elements conduce to the torture of the damned, according to Wis. 5:21, "the whole world will fight with Him against the unwise"...

Q3094: Whether the worm of the damned is corporeal?

After the day of judgment, no animal or mixed body will remain in the renewed world except only the body of man, because the former are not directed to incorruption, nor after that time will there be generation or corruption...

Q3095: Whether the weeping of the damned will be corporeal?

Two things are to be observed in corporeal weeping...

Q3096: Whether the damned are in material darkness?

The disposition of hell will be such as to be adapted to the utmost unhappiness of the damned...

Q3097: Whether the fire of hell will be corporeal?

There have been many opinions about the fire of hell...

Q3098: Whether the fire of hell is of the same species as ours?

As stated in Meteor. iv, 1 fire has other bodies for its matter, for the reason that of all the elements it has the greatest power of action...

Q3099: Whether the fire of hell is beneath the earth?

As Augustine says, "I am of opinion that no one knows in what part of the world hell is situated, unless the Spirit of God has revealed this to some one"...

OF THE WILL AND INTELLECT OF THE DAMNED

Q3100: Whether every act of will in the damned is evil?

A twofold will may be considered in the damned, namely the deliberate will and the natural will...

Q3101: Whether the damned repent of the evil they have done?

A person may repent of sin in two ways: in one way directly, in another way indirectly...

Q3102: Whether the damned by right and deliberate reason would wish not to be?

Not to be may be considered in two ways...

Q3103: Whether in hell the damned would wish others were damned who are not damned?

Even as in the blessed in heaven there will be most perfect charity, so in the damned there will be the most perfect hate...

Q3104: Whether the damned hate God?

The appetite is moved by good or evil apprehended...

Q3105: Whether the damned demerit?

We must draw a distinction between the damned before the judgment day and after...

Q3106: Whether the damned can make use of the knowledge they had in this world?

Even as in the saints on account of the perfection of their glory, there will be nothing but what is a matter of joy so there will be nothing in the damned but what is a matter and cause of sorrow; nor will anything that can pertain to sorrow be lacking, so that their unhappiness is consummate...

Q3107: Whether the damned will ever think of God?

One may think of God in two ways...

Q3108: Whether the damned see the glory of the blessed?

The damned, before the judgment day, will see the blessed in glory, in such a way as to know, not what that glory is like, but only that they are in a state of glory that surpasses all thought...

OF GOD'S MERCY AND JUSTICE TOWARDS THE DAMNED

Q3109: Whether by Divine justice an eternal punishment is inflicted on sinners?

Since punishment is measured in two ways, namely according to the degree of its severity, and according to its length of time, the measure of punishment corresponds to the measure of fault, as regards the degree of severity, so that the more grievously a person sins the more grievously is he punished: "As much as she hath glorified herself and lived in delicacies, so much torment and sorrow give ye to her" ...

Q3110: Whether by God's mercy all punishment of the damned, both men and demons, comes to an end?

As Augustine says Origen "erred in maintaining that the demons will at length, through God's mercy, be delivered from their punishment"...

Q3111: Whether God's mercy suffers at least men to be punished eternally?

As Augustine says, some evaded the error of Origen by asserting that the demons are punished everlastingly, while holding that all men, even unbelievers, are at length set free from punishment...

Q3112: Whether the punishment of Christians is brought to an end by the mercy of God?

According to Augustine, there have been some who predicted a delivery from eternal punishment not for all men, but only for Christians. although they stated the matter in different ways...

Q3113: Whether all those who perform works of mercy will be punished eternally?

As Augustine says in the book quoted above, some have maintained that not all who have professed the Catholic faith will be freed from eternal punishment, but only those who persevere in works of mercy, although they be guilty of other crimes...

Appendix 1

OF THE QUALITY OF THOSE SOULS WHO DEPART THIS LIFE WITH ORIGINAL SIN ONLY

Q3114: Whether those souls which depart with original sin alone, suffer from a bodily fire, and are punished by fire?

Punishment should be proportionate to fault, according to the saying of Isaias, "In measure against measure, when it shall be cast off, thou shalt judge it"...

Q3115: Whether these same souls suffer spiritual affliction on account of the state in which they are?

On this question there are three opinions...

OF THE QUALITY OF SOULS WHO EXPIATE ACTUAL SIN OR ITS PUNISHMENT IN PURGATORY

Q3116: Whether the pains of Purgatory surpass all the temporal pains of this life?

In Purgatory there will be a twofold pain; one will be the pain of loss, namely the delay of the divine vision, and the pain of sense, namely punishment by corporeal fire...

Q3117: Whether this punishment is voluntary?

A thing is said to be voluntary in two ways...

Q3118: Whether the soul in Purgatory are punished by the demons?

As after the Judgment day the Divine justice will kindle the fire with which the damned will be punished for ever, even so now the elect are cleansed after this life by the Divine justice alone, and neither by the ministry of the demons whom they have vanquished, nor by the ministry of the angels who would not inflict such tortures on their fellow-citizens...

Q3119: Whether venial sin is expiated by the pains of Purgatory as regards the guilt?

Some have asserted that no sin is remitted after this life, as regards the guilt: that if a man die with mortal sin, he is damned and incapable of being forgiven; and that it is not possible for a man to die with a venial sin and without mortal sin, since the final grace washes the venial sin away...

Q3120: Whether the fire of Purgatory delivers from the debt of punishment?

Whosoever is another's debtor, is freed from his indebtedness by paying the debt...

Q3121: Whether one person is delivered from this punishment sooner than another?

Some venial sins cling more persistently than others, according as the affections are more inclined to them, and more firmly fixed in them...

Appendix 2

TWO ARTICLES ON PURGATORY

Q3122: Whether there is a Purgatory after this life?

From the conclusions we have drawn above it is sufficiently clear that there is a Purgatory after this life...

Q3123: Whether it is the same place where souls are cleansed, and the damned punished?

Nothing is clearly stated in Scripture about the situation of Purgatory, nor is it possible to offer convincing arguments on this question...